CLEF
Catalogue of Lexico-grammatical
English Features
alpha+1e8e6760 (2026-02-22 14:20 UTC)

About CLEF • Browse Features

Biber 1988 • Xiao 2009 • Bohmann 2019 • MFTE

A unified, structured, machine-readable catalogue of linguistic features for multi-dimensional register analysis, corpus stylistics, authorship attribution, and any research that relies on counting lexico-grammatical features in English text.

Features › Function Words › FW_BY

FW_BY Function word: "by"

Definition

Relative frequency of the function word “by”.

Detection Rules

grieve_2023

Word: by

Requires: word

Normalization

Per words

Sources

  • grieve_2023 — Grieve, Jack (2023) : Register variation explains stylometric authorship analysis

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← FW_BUT Function word: "but" All features FW_COMPLETELY Completely →
FW_BY Function word: "by"
  • Definition
  • Detection
  • Normalization
  • Sources