CHAPTER I

ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION.

§ 2. The Gothic monuments, as handed down to us, are written in a peculiar alphabet which, according to the Greek ecclesiastical historians Philostorgios and Sokrates, was invented by Ulfilas. But WimmerWimmer, ‘Die Runenschrift,’ Berlin, 1887; pp. 259–74. and others have clearly shown that Ulfilas simply took the Greek uncial alphabet as the basis for his, and that in cases where this was insufficient for his purpose he had recourse to the Latin and runic alphabets. The alphabetic sequence of the letters can be determined with certainty from the numerical values, which agree as nearly as possible with those of the Greek. Below are given the Gothic characters in the first line, in the second line their numerical values, and in the third line their transliteration in Roman characters.

A. The Vowels.

§ 3. The Gothic vowel-system is represented by the five elementary letters a, e, i, o, u, and the digraphs ei, iu, ai, and au.

Vowel-length was entirely omitted in writing. The sign ¯, placed over vowels, is here used to mark long vowels.

The vowels e, o (uniformly written ē, ō in this grammar) were always long. a, u had both a short and a long quantity. i was a short vowel, the corresponding long vowel of which was expressed by the digraph ei after the analogy of the Greek pronunciation of ει in the fourth century. iu was a falling diphthong. Each of the digraphs ai, au was used without distinction in writing to express three different sounds which are here written ái, aí, ai and áu, aú, au.

A brief description of the sound-values of the above 6vowel-system will be given in the following paragraphs. Our chief sources for ascertaining the approximate quality and quantity of the Gothic simple vowels and diphthongs are:— (1) The pronunciation of the Greek and Latin alphabets as they obtained in the fourth century; the former of which was taken by Ulfilas as the basis for representing his own native sound-system. (2) A comparison of the Gothic spelling of Greek loan-words and proper names occurring in Ulfilas with the original Greek words. (3) The spelling of Gothic proper names found in Greek and Latin records of the fourth to the eighth century. (4) The occasional fluctuating orthography of one and the same word in the biblical translation. (5) Special sound-laws within the Gothic language itself. (6) The comparison of Gothic with the other Old Germanic languages.

§ 4. a had the same sound as the a in NHG. mann, as ahtáu, eight; akrs, field; dags, day; namō, name; giba, gift; waúrda, words.

ā had the same sound as the a in English father. In native Gothic words it occurs only in the combination āh (see § 59), as fāhan, to catch, seize; brāhta, I brought; þāhō, clay.

§ 5. ē was a long close e-sound, strongly tinctured with the vowel sound heard in NHG. sie, she. Hence we sometimes find ei (that is ī), and occasionally i, written where we should etymologically expect ē, and vice versa. These fluctuations occur more frequently in Luke than elsewhere; examples are: qeins = qēns, Luke ii. 5; faheid = fahēþ, Luke ii. 10. spēwands = speiwands, Mark vii. 33; miþþanē = miþþanei, Luke ii. 43; izē = izei, Mark ix. 1. birusjōs = bērusjōs, Luke ii. 41; duatsniwun = duatsnēwun, Mark vi. 53. usdrēbi = usdribi, Mark v. 10. Examples are: jēr, year; slēpan, to sleep; nēmum, we took; swē, as; hidrē, hither.

§ 6. i was probably a short open vowel like the i in English bit, as ik, I; itan, to eat; fisks, fish; bindan, to bind; arbi, heritage; bandi, a band.

ī (written ei) was the vowel sound heard in NHG. sie, she. Cp. the beginning of § 5. Examples are: swein, swine, pig; beitan, to bite; gasteis, guests; managei, multitude; áiþei, mother.

§ 7. ō was a long close vowel, strongly tinctured with the vowel sound heard in NHG. gut, good. Hence we occasionally find u written where we should etymologically expect ō, and vice versa, as supūda = supōda, Mark ix. 50; ūhtēdun = ōhtēdun, Mark xi. 32. faíhō = faíhu, Mark x. 23. Examples are: ōgan, to fear; ōgjan, to terrify; brōþar, brother; sōkjan, to seek; saísō, I sowed; haírtō, heart.

§ 8. u had the same sound as the vowel in English put, as ubils, evil; ufta, often; fugls, fowl, bird; sunus, son; bundans, bound; faíhu, cattle; sunu (acc. sing.), son.

ū had the same sound as the u in NHG. gut, as ūt, ūta, out; ūhtwō, early morn; brūþs, bride; hūs, house; þūsundi, thousand.

§ 9. iu was a falling diphthong (i. e. with the stress on the i), and pronounced like the ew in North. Engl. dial. pronunciation of new. It only occurs in stem-syllables (except in ūhtiugs, seasonable), as iupa, above; þiuda, people; driusan, to fall; triu, tree; kniu, knee.

§ 10. As has already been pointed out in § 3, the digraph ai was used by Ulfilas without distinction in writing to represent three different sounds which were of threefold origin. Our means for determining the nature of these sounds are derived partly from a comparison of the Gothic forms in which they occur with the corresponding forms of the other Indo-Germanic languages, and partly from the Gothic spelling of Greek loan-words. The above remarks also hold good for the digraph au, § 11.

aí was a short open e-sound like the ë in OHG. nëman, and almost like the a in English hat. It only occurs before r, h, ƕ (except in the case of aíþþáu, or, and possibly waíla, well, and in the reduplicated syllable of the pret. of strong verbs belonging to Class VII). See §§ 67, 69, 311. Examples are: aírþa, earth; baíran, to bear; waírpan, to throw; faíhu, cattle; taíhun, ten; saíƕan, to see; aíáuk, I increased; laílōt, I let; haíháit, I named. But see p. 362.

ái was a diphthong and had the same sound as the ei in NHG. mein, my, and nearly the same sound as the i in English mine, as áips, oath; áins, one; hláifs, loaf; stáins, stone; twái, two; nimái, he may take.

ai had probably the same pronunciation as OE. ǣ (i. e. a long open e-sound). It occurs only in very few words before a following vowel (§ 76), as saian, to sow; waian, to blow; faian, to blame; and possibly in armaiō, mercy, pity. But see p. 362.

§ 11. aú was a short open o-sound like the o in English not. It only occurs before r and h, as haúrn, horn; waúrd, word; daúhtar, daughter; aúhsa, ox. See §§ 71, 73, and p. 362.

áu was a pure diphthong and had approximately the same sound as the ou in English house, as áugō, eye; áusō, ear; dáuþus, death; háubiþ, head; ahtáu, eight; nimáu, I may take.

au was a long open o-sound like the au in English aught. It only occurs in a few words before a following vowel (§ 80), as staua, judgment; taui, deed; trauan, to trust; bauan, to build, inhabit. Cp. §§ 3 and 10. But see p. 362.

§ 12. From what has been said in §§ 4–11, we arrive at the following Gothic vowel-system:—

B. The Consonants.

§ 13. According to the transcription adopted in § 2 the Gothic consonant-system is represented by the following letters, which are here re-arranged after the order of the English alphabet:—b, d, f, g, h, ƕ, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, þ, w, z.

§ 14. b had a twofold pronunciation. Initially, as also medially and finally after consonants, it was a voiced explosive like English b, as barn, child; blinds, blind; baíran, to bear; salbōn, to anoint; arbi, heritage; lamb, lamb; -swarb, he wiped.

Medially after vowels it was a voiced bilabial spirant, and may be pronounced like the v in English live, which is a voiced labio-dental spirant, as haban, to have; sibun, seven; ibns, even. See § 161.

§ 15. d had a twofold pronunciation. Initially, as also medially and finally after consonants, it was a voiced explosive like the d in English do, as dags, day; dáuþus, death; dragan, to draw; kalds, cold; bindan, to bind, band, he bound; huzd, treasure; also when geminated, as iddja, I went.

Medially after vowels it was a voiced interdental spirant nearly like the th in English then, as fadar, father; badi, bed; biudan, to offer. See § 173.

§ 16. f was probably a voiceless bilabial spirant like the f in OHG. slāfan, to sleep; a sound which does not occur in English. It may, however, be pronounced like the f in English life, which is labio-dental, as fadar, father; fulls, full; ufar, over; wulfs, wolf; fimf, five; gaf, he gave.

§ 17. g. The exact pronunciation of this letter cannot be determined with certainty for all the positions in which it is found.

Initial g probably had the same sound as the g in English go, as gōþs, good; giban, to give; the same may also have been the pronunciation of g in the combination vowel + g + consonant (other than a guttural), as bugjan, to buy; tagla, hairs; tagra (nom. pl.), tears. Cp. §§ 167–8.

Medially between vowels it was a voiced spirant like the widely spread pronunciation of g in NHG. tage, days, as áugō, eye; steigan, to ascend. Cp. § 168.

Final postvocalic g and g in the final combination gs was probably a voiceless spirant like the ch in NHG. or in Scotch loch, as dag (acc. sing.), day; mag, he can; dags, day. Cp. § 169.

Before another guttural it was used to express a guttural nasal (ŋ) like the γ in Greek ἄγγελὸς, angel; ἄγχι, near; and the ng in English thing, or the n in think, as aggilus, angel; briggan, to bring; figgrs, finger; drigkan, to drink; sigqan, to sink.

The combination ggw was in some words equal to ŋ + gw, and in others equal to gg (a long voiced explosive) + w. When it was the one, and when the other, can only be determined upon etymological grounds. Examples of the former are siggwan, to sing; aggwus, narrow; and of the latter bliggwan, to beat, strike; triggws, true, faithful. Cp. § 151.

§ 18. h, initially before vowels and probably also medially between vowels, was a strong aspirate, as haban, to have; haírtō, heart; faíhu, cattle; gateihan, to announce. Cp. § 164. In other positions it was a voiceless spirant 11like the NHG. ch in nacht, night, as hláifs, loaf; nahts, night; falh, I hid; jah, and.

§ 19. ƕ was either a labialized h or else a voiceless w. It may be pronounced like the wh in the Scotch pronunciation of when, as ƕeila, time; ƕōpan, to boast; aƕa, river; saíƕan, to see; saƕ, he saw; nēƕ (av.), near. Cp. notes to § 2.

§ 20. j (that is i in the function of a consonant) had nearly the same sound-value as English y in yet. It only occurs initially and medially, as jēr, year; juggs, young; juk, yoke; lagjan, to lay; niujis, new; fijands, fiend, enemy.

§ 21. k had the same sound as English k, except that it must be pronounced initially before consonants (l, n, r). It occurs initially, medially, and finally, as kaúrn, corn; kniu, knee; akrs, field; brikan, to break; ik, I; juk, yoke.

§ 22. l, m, n had the same sound-values as in English. They all occur initially, medially, and finally, in the function of consonants.

l. laggs, long; láisjan, to teach; háils, hale, whole; haldan, to hold; skal, I shall; mēl, time.

m. mēna, moon; mizdō, meed, reward; namō, name; niman, to take; nam, he took; nimam, we take.

n. nahts, night; niun, nine; mēna, moon; rinnan, to run; láun, reward; kann, I know.

In the function of vowels they do not occur in stem-syllables, as fugls, fowl, bird; tagl, hair; sigljō, seal; máiþms, gift; bagms, tree, beam; ibns, even; táikns, token. See § 159.

§ 23. p had the same sound as English p in put. It occurs initially (in loan-words only), medially, and finally, as pund, pound; páida, coat; plinsjan, to dance; slēpan, to sleep; diups, deep; hilpan, to help; saíslēp, he slept; skip, ship.

§ 24. q was a labialized k, and may be pronounced like the qu in English queen, as qiman, to come; qēns, wife; sigqan, to sink; riqis, darkness; sagq, he sank; bistugq, a stumbling. See §§ 2 note 3, 163.

§ 25. r was a trilled lingual r, and was also so pronounced before consonants, and finally, like the r in Lowland Scotch. It occurs as a consonant initially, medially, and finally, as raíhts, right, straight; rēdan, to counsel; baíran, to bear; barn, child; fidwōr, four; daúr, door.

In the function of a vowel it does not occur in stem-syllables, as akrs, field; tagr, tear; huggrjan, to hunger. Cp. § 159.

§ 26. s was a voiceless spirant in all positions like the s in English sin, as sama, same; sibun, seven; wisan, to be; þūsundi, thousand; hūs, house; gras, grass.

§ 27. t had the same sound-value as English t in ten, as taíhun, ten; tunþus, tooth; háitan, to name; mahts, might, power; haírtō, heart; wáit, I know; at, to, at.

§ 28. þ was a voiceless spirant like the th in English thin, as þagkjan, to think; þreis, three; brōþar, brother; brūþs, bride; miþ, with; fanþ, he found.

§ 29. w (i. e. u in the function of a consonant) had mostly the same sound-value as the w in English wit. After diphthongs and long vowels, as also after consonants not followed by a vowel, it was probably a kind of reduced u-sound, the exact quality of which cannot be determined. Examples of the former pronunciation are:—wēns, hope; witan, to know; wrikan, to persecute; swistar, sister; taíhswō, right hand. And of the latter:—snáiws, snow; waúrstw, work; skadwjan, to overshadow.

§ 30. z was a voiced spirant like the z in English freeze, and only occurs medially in regular native Gothic forms, as huzd, hoard, treasure; hazjan, to praise; máiza, greater. But see § 175.

Phonetic Survey of the Gothic Sound-system

§ 31.

A. Vowels (Sonants).

To these must also be added the nasals m, n, and the liquids l, r in the function of vowels. See § 159.

B. Consonants.

To these must be added the aspirate h. See § 2 note 1 for X.

In Gothic as in the oldest period of the other Germanic languages, intervocalic double consonants were really long, and were pronounced long as in Modern Italian and Swedish, thus atta = at-ta, father; manna = man-na, man.

Stress (Accent)

§ 32. All the Indo-Germanic languages have partly pitch (musical) and partly stress accent, but one or other of the two systems of accentuation always predominates in each language, thus in Sanskrit and Old Greek the accent was predominantly pitch, whereas in the oldest periods of the Italic dialects, and the Keltic and Germanic languages, 14the accent was predominantly stress. This difference in the system of accentuation is clearly seen in Old Greek and the old Germanic languages by the preservation of the vowels of unaccented syllables in the former and the weakening or loss of them in the latter. In the early period of the parent Indg. language, the stress accent must have been more predominant than the pitch accent, because it is only upon this assumption that we are able to account for the origin of the vowels ī̌, ū̌, ə (§ 35, Note 1), the liquid and nasal sonants (§§ 53–6), and the loss of vowel often accompanied by a loss of syllable, as in Greek gen. πα-τρ-ός beside acc. πα-τέρ-α; πέτ-ομαι beside ἐ-πτ-όμην; Gothic gen. pl. aúhs-nē beside acc. *aúhsa-ns. It is now a generally accepted theory that at a later period of the parent language the system of accentuation became predominantly pitch, which was preserved in Sanskrit and Old Greek, but which must have become predominantly stress again in prim. Germanic some time prior to the operation of Verner’s law (§ 136).

The quality of the accent in the parent language was partly ‘broken’ (acute) and partly ‘slurred’ (circumflex). This distinction in the quality of the accent was preserved in prim. Germanic in final syllables containing a long vowel, as is seen by the difference in the development of the final long vowels in historic times according as they originally had the ‘broken’ or ‘slurred’ accent (§§ 87 (1), 89).

In the parent language the chief accent of a word did not always fall upon the same syllable of a word, but was free or movable as in Sanskrit and Greek, cp. e. g. Gr. nom. πατήρ, father, voc. πάτερ, acc. πατέρα; Skr. ḗmi, I go, pl. imás, we go. This free accent was still preserved in prim. Germanic at the time when Verner’s law operated, whereby the voiceless spirants became voiced when the vowel immediately preceding them did not bear the chief accent of the word (§ 136). At a later period of the prim. 15Germanic language, the chief accent of a word became confined to the first syllable. This confining of the chief accent to the first syllable was the cause of the great weakening—and eventual loss—which the vowels underwent in unaccented syllables in the prehistoric period of the individual Germanic languages (Ch. V). And the extent to which the weakening of unaccented syllables has been carried in some of the Modern Germanic dialects is well illustrated by such sentences as: as et it mọən, I shall have it in the morning; ast ə dunt if id kud, I should have done it if I had been able (West Yorks.).

§ 33. The rule for the accentuation of uncompounded words is the same in Gothic as in the oldest period of the other Germanic languages, viz. the chief stress fell upon the first syllable, and always remained there even when suffixes and inflexional endings followed it, as áudags, blessed; niman, to take; reikinōn, to rule; the preterite of reduplicated verbs, as laílōt : lētan, to let; haíháit : háitan, to call; blindamma (masc. dat. sing.), blind; dagōs, days; gumanē, of men; nimanda, they are taken; barnilō, little child; bērusjōs, parents; brōþrahans, brethren; dalaþrō, from beneath; dáubiþa, deafness; mannisks, human; þiudinassus, kingdom; waldufni, power. The position of the secondary stress in trisyllabic and polysyllabic words fluctuated in Gothic, and with the present state of our knowledge of the subject it is impossible to formulate any hard and fast rules concerning it.

In compound words it is necessary to distinguish between compounds whose second element is a noun or an adjective, and those whose second element is a verb. In the former case the first element had the chief accent in the parent Indg. language; in the latter case the first element had or had not the chief accent according to the position of the verb in the sentence. But already in prim. Germanic the second element of compound verbs nearly always had 16the chief accent; a change which was mostly brought about by the compound and simple verb existing side by side. This accounts for the difference in the accentuation of such pairs as ándahafts, answer : andháfjan, to answer; ándanēms, pleasant : andníman, to receive.

§ 34. As has been stated above, compound words, whose second element is a noun or an adjective, had originally the chief stress on the first syllable. This simple rule was preserved in Gothic, as frakunþs, OE. fracuþ, despised; gaskafts, OHG. gascaft, creation; unmahts, infirmity; ufkunþi, knowledge; usfilh, burial; akranaláus, without fruit; allwaldands, the Almighty; brūþfaþs, bridegroom; gistradagis, to-morrow; láushandus, empty-handed; twalibwintrus, twelve years old; þiudangardi, kingdom. But in compound verbs the second element had the chief stress, as atlagjan, to lay on; duginnan, to begin; frakunnan, to despise; gaqiman, to assemble; usfulljan, to fulfil. When, however, the first element of a compound verb was separated from the verb by one or more particles, it had the chief stress, as gá-u-ƕa-sēƕi, Mark viii. 23 díz-uhþan-sat, Mark xvi. 8.