CHAPTER XIV

ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS

1. Adverbs.

§ 344. Most adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by means of the suffix -ba, the origin of which is uncertain. Some scholars regard it as an instrumental ending, representing an Indg. *-bhē or *-bhō. Examples are: baírhtaba, brightly; báitraba, bitterly; háuhaba, highly; ƕassaba, sharply; mikilaba, greatly; raíhtaba, rightly; ubilaba, evilly. sunjaba, truly. ana-láugniba, secretly; ga-tēmiba, fitly. agluba, with difficulty; harduba beside hardaba, grievously; manwuba, in readiness.

The original ablative of adjectives (Indg. -ō̃d, -ē̃d, OE. -a, OS. OHG. -o) was often used adverbially, as and-ádugjō, openly; ana-leikō, in like manner; ga-leikō, like; glaggwō, diligently; sinteinō, continually; sniumundō, quickly; spráutō, quickly; þiubjō, secretly; þridjō, for the third 167time; ūhteigō, in season. The same ending also occurs in aftarō, behind; aúftō, perhaps, surely; missō, one another; sundrō, asunder; ufarō, above; undarō, beneath; simlē, once.

§ 345. The comparative degree of adverbs generally ends in -is, ōs (see § 243), as áiris, earlier; faúrþis, beforehand; framis, further; haldis, rather; háuhis, higher; máis, more; nēƕis, nearer; mins from *minniz, less; waírs from *wirsiz, worse; aljaleikōs, otherwise; sniumundōs, with more haste.

Of the superlative degree two examples only are extant: frumist, first of all; máist, at most.

§ 346. The gen. case is sometimes used adverbially, as allis, in general, wholly; and-waírþs, over against; nahts, at night; raíhtis, however, indeed.

§ 347. Adverbs of time are expressed either by simple adverbs, as áir, early; ƕan, when; ju, already; nu, now; þan, then; or by the oblique cases of nouns and pronouns, as himma daga, to-day; gistra-dagis, du maúgina, tomorrow; dagis ƕizuh, day by day; ni áiw, never; fram himma nu, henceforth.

§ 348. Adverbs of place denoting rest in a place have the ending -r or -a (cp. the -r in Lat. cūr, why, Lith. kur̃, where. The -a is originally an instrumental ending), as aljar, elsewhere; hēr, here; ƕar, where; jáinar, yonder; þar, there; afta, behind; faúra, before; inna, within; iupa, above; ūta, without; dalaþa, below.

Those denoting motion to a place have either no suffix or one of the suffixes -þ (-d), -drē. The -þ (-d) goes back to an Indg. particle *-te, denoting motion to a place, and is also preserved in Greek in words like πό-σε from πό-τε, whither; ἄλλο-σε, elsewhither. -drē represents an original ablative ending *-trē̃d. Examples are: aljaþ, in another direction; dalaþ, down; ƕaþ, ƕadrē, whither; jaind, jaindrē, thither; samaþ, to the same place; hidrē, hither.

Those denoting motion from a place have either the suffix -þrō or -na, where -þrō represents an original ablative ending *-trō̃d and is related to the -tra in Skr. words like tá-tra, there; anyá-tra, elsewhere; and -na from an original particle -nē denoting motion from a place cp. Lat. super-ne, from above. Examples are: aljaþrō, from elsewhere; allaþrō, from all directions; dalaþrō, from below; faírraþrō, from afar; innaþrō, innana, from within; iupana, iupaþrō, from above; jáinþrō, thence; ƕaþrō, whence; þaþrō, thence; ūtaþrō, ūtana, from without; aftana, hindana, from behind.

§ 349. The affirmative and negative particles are ja, jái, yea, yes; ni, not; nē, nay, no.

The interrogative particles are u, which is attached enclitically to the first word of its clause, as skuldu (= skuld-u) ist?, is it lawful?; in compounds having a prefix it is attached to the prefix, as gáuldubjats? (= ga-u-láubjats?), do ye two believe?; niu (= ni-u), not; an, nuh, then; jau (= ja-u), whether; þáu (in the second of two alternative questions), or; ibái, which like Gr. μή, Lat. num, requires a negative answer, cp. St. Mark ii. 19. See § 297.

2. Prepositions.

§ 350.

(1) With the accusative: and, along, throughout, towards; faúr, for, before; inuh, without; þaírh, through, by; undar, under; wiþra, against.

(2) With the dative: af, of, from; alja, except; du, to; faúra, before; fram, from; miþ, with; nēƕa, nigh to, near; undarō, under; us, out, out of.

(3) With accusative and dative: afar, after, according to; ana, on, upon; at, at, by, to; bi, by, about, around, against, according to; hindar, behind, beyond, among; uf, under; ufar, over, above; und with acc. until, up to, with dat. for.

(4) With accusative, dative, and genitive: in with acc. 169in, into, towards, with dat. in, into, among, with gen. on account of.

3. Conjunctions.

§ 351.

(1) Copulative: jah, and, also; uh (enclitic), and; nih, and not; jah … jah, both … and; ni þatáinei … ak jah, not only … but also; nih … ak jah, not only … but also.

(2) Disjunctive: aíþþáu, or; andizuh … aíþþáu, either … or; jaþþē … jaþþē, whether … or; ni (or nih) … ni (or nih), neither … nor.

(3) Adversative: ak (after negative clauses), but; akei, but; iþ, þan, aþþan, but, however.

(4) Conclusive: nu, nunu, nuh, þannu, þanuh, þaruh, eiþan, duþē (duþþē), therefore.

(5) Concessive: þáu, in that case; þáuhjabái, even though; swēþáuh, indeed, however.

(6) Causal: allis, áuk, raíhtis, untē, for, because; (ni) þēei, (not) because; þandē, inasmuch as.

(7) Final: ei, þatei, þēei, þei, that; duþē, duppē ei, du þamma ei, to the end that, because; ei, swaei, swaswē, so that; ibái (iba), lest, that … not.

(8) Conditional: jabái, if; nibái, niba, unless, if … not.

(9) Temporal: swē, just as; þan, þandē, when, as long as; biþē, miþþanei, whilst; sunsei, as soon as; faúrþzei before that; untē, und patei, þandē, until, until that, as long as.

(10) Comparative: ƕáiwa, how; swē, as; swaswē, so as.