CHAPTER XVI

SYNTAX

Cases.

§ 426. Accusative. Transitive verbs govern the accusative as in other languages: ga-saíƕiþ þana sunu mans, ye shall see the son of man; akran baíran, to bear fruit; &c.

A few verbs take an accusative of kindred meaning, as ōhtēdun sis agis mikil, lit. they feared great fear for themselves, they feared exceedingly; háifstei þō gōdōn háifst, fight (thou) the good fight; similarly huzdjan huzda, to treasure up treasures; waúrkjan waúrstwa, to work works.

An accusative of closer definition occurs very rarely in Gothic: urrann sa dáuþa gabundans handuns jah fōtuns faskjam, the dead man came forth bound as to hands and feet with bandages; standáiþ nu ufgaúdrdanái hupins izwarans sunjái, stand therefore, girt as to your loins with truth.

An accusative of the person is used with the impersonal verbs grēdōn, to be hungry; huggrjan, to hunger; paúrsjan, to thirst; and also with gen. of the thing kar(a) ist, there is a care, it concerns, as ni kar-ist ina þizē lambē, he careth not for the sheep.

The space and time over which an action extends are expressed by the accusative, as qēmun dagis wig, they went a day’s journey; jabái ƕas þuk ananáupjái rasta áina, gaggáis miþ imma twōs, if anyone (whosoever) shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him two; salida twans dagans, he abode two days.

láisjan takes two accusatives, one of the person, and one of the thing taught, as láisida ins in gajukōm manag, he taught them many a thing in parables. The following verbs and a few others have a double accusative in the active, one of the external object, and one of the predicate:— táujan, as ƕana þuk silban táujis þu? whom makest thou thyself?; waúrkjan, as raíhtōs waúrkeiþ stáigōs guþs unsaris, make ye straight the paths of our God; briggan, as sō sunja frijans izwis briggiþ, the truth shall make you free; dōmjan, as garaíhtana dōmidēdun guþ, they justified God; kunnan, as kunnands ina waír garaíhtana jah weihana, knowing him (to be) a just and holy man; bigitan, as bigētun þana siukan skalk háilana, they found the sick servant whole; qiþan, as izwis ni qiþa skalkans, I call you not servants; namnjan, as þanzei apaústaúluns namnida, whom he called apostles; rahnjan, as triggwana mik rahnida, he counted me faithful; háitan, as Daweid ina fráujan háitiþ, David calls him Lord; áihan, as attan áigum Abraham, we have Abraham as father.

§ 427. Genitive. Many verbs govern the direct or indirect object in the genitive, as hilp meináizōs un-galáubeináis, help thou my unbelief; fraíhna jah ik izwis áinis waúrdis, I will also ask you one word; saei allis skamáip sik meina aíþþáu meináizē waúrdē, þizuh 184sunus mans skamáiþ sik, for whosoever shall be ashamed of me or my words, of him shall the son of man be ashamed. Other examples are brūkjan, to use; fulljan, to fill; fullnan, to become full; gaírnjan, to long for; ga-hráinjan, to make clean; ga-þarban, to abstain from; ga-weisōn, to visit; háiljan, to make whole; lustōn, to desire; niutan, to enjoy; þaúrban, to need; &c.

The gen. is also governed by certain adjectives, as ahmins weihis fulls, full of the Holy Ghost; frija ist þis witōdis, she is free from that law; similarly filu, much; láus, empty, void; wans, lacking, wanting; waírþs, worthy; &c.

The gen. is often used in a partitive sense, especially with ni, ni waíhts, the interrogative and indefinite pronouns; also with the cardinal numerals þūsundi, taíhuntēhund, twa hunda, &c., and those expressing the decades (twái tigjus, &c., § 247). Examples are: jah ni was im barnē, they had no child; ni waíht warþigōs, nothing of (= no) condemnation; ƕas izwara, which one of you; ƕō mizdōnō, what reward; ƕazuh abnē, every man; sums mannē, a certain man; ni áinshun þiwē, no servant; all bagmē gōdáizē, every good tree; ƕarjis þizē waírþiþ qēns, of which of these shall she be wife; wēsun áuk swē fimf þūsundjōs waírē, for there were about five thousand men; taíhuntēhund lambē, a hundred sheep; twáim hundam skattē hláibōs ni ganōhái sind þáim, two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient for them; dagē fidwōr tiguns, fráisans fram diabuláu, being forty days tempted of the devil. A partitive gen. is also sometimes used with verbs, as insandida skalk ei nēmi akranis, he sent a servant that he might receive (some) of the fruit.

The gen. is also sometimes used adverbially, as ni allis, not at all; raíhtis, indeed; filáus, much, very much; landis, over the land, far away; gistradagis, to-morrow; dagis 185ƕizuh, day by day; nahts, by night; usleiþam jáinis stadis, let us pass over to the other side; insandida ina háiþjōs seináizōs, he sent him into his field. The following adverbs of place govern the gen. when used prepositionally:— hindana, from behind, beyond; innana, from within, within; ūtana (ūtaþrō), from without, out of; ufarō (also the dat.), over, above.

Amongst other examples of the use of the gen. may be mentioned: in Saraípta Seidōnáis, unto Sarepta (a city) of Sidon; Tyrē jah Seidōnē land, the land of the Tyrians and Sidonians = Tyre and Sidon; gaggiþ sums mannē fram þis faúiramaþleis synagōgeis, there cometh a certain man from (the house) of the ruler of the synagogue; gasaƕ Iakōbu þana Zaíbaídaiáus, he saw James the (son) of Zebedee; Iudan (acc.) Iakōbáus, Judas (the brother) of James; was áuk jērē twalibē, for she was (of the age) of twelve years.

§ 428. Dative. The following verbs and several others take a direct object in the dative case: afwaírpan, to cast away, put away; andhafjan, to answer; baírgan, to keep, preserve; balwjan, to torment; frabugjan, to sell; fraliusan, to lose; fraqiman, to spend, consume; fraþjan, to understand; frakunnan, to despise; gáumjan, to perceive; idweitjan, to upbraid; kukjan, to kiss; tēkan, attēkan, to touch; ufarmunnōn, to forget. The verbs fraqistjan, usqistjan, and usqiman, to destroy; waírpan, to cast; uswaírpan and usdreiban, to cast out, sometimes take the dative and sometimes the accusative without a distinction in meaning. A few other verbs take the dative or accusative with a change of meaning, as anaháitan, with dat. to scold, with acc. to invoke; uskiusan, with dat. to reject, with acc. to prove, test.

Many adjectives take a dative, as aglus, difficult; andaneiþs, hostile; ansteigs, gracious; azētizō, easier; brūks, useful; gōþs, good; hulþs, gracious; kunþs, known; liufs, 186dear; mōdags, angry; raþizō, easier; skula, guilty, liable to; skulds, owing; swērs, honoured; swikunþs, manifest; unkunþs, unknown; wiþrawaírþs, opposite.

The dative together with wisan or waírþan often has the same meaning as haban, as ni was im barnē, they had no children; saúrga mis ist mikila, I have great sorrow; waírþiþ þus fahēþs, thou shalt have joy; ei uns waírþái þata arbi, that we may have the inheritance.

The dative is often used reflexively, as leiƕan sis, to borrow; rōdida sis áins, he spake within himself; ni ōgs þus, be (thou) not afraid; ni faúrhteiþ izwis, be (ye) not affrighted; frawaúrhta mis, I have sinned; þankjan sis or mitōn sis, to think to oneself.

The dative also discharges the functions of the old ablative, instrumental, and locative, as wōpida Iēsus stibnái mikilái, Jesus cried with a loud voice; slōhun is háubiþ ráusa, they smote his head with a reed. After the comparative where we should use than together with a nominative, as sa afar mis gagganda swinþōza mis ist, he that cometh after me is mightier than I; niu sáiwala máis ist fōdeinái jah leik wastjōm, is not the life more than meat, and the body than raiment; swēgnida ahmin Iēsus, Jesus rejoiced in spirit; naht jah daga, by night and day.

For the dative absolute, see § 436.

Adjectives.

§ 429. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number, gender, and case not only when used attributively, but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition. To this general rule there are a few exceptions.

(1) An adjective accompanying managei, people, multitude, and hiuhma, crowd, mostly occurs in the masculine plural, as jah was managei beidandans Zakariins, and 187the people waited for Zacharias; jah alls hiuhma was manageins beidandans, and the whole crowd of the people was waiting (the Gr. has προσευχόμενον, praying).

(2) Grammatical feminines are occasionally treated as masculines, or even when denoting things as neuters and grammatical neuters (when suggesting persons) as masculines, as ei kanniþ wēsi handugei guþs, that the wisdom of God might be known; ni waírþiþ garaíhts áinhun leikē, no man (lit. no one of bodies) becometh just.

(3) When the same adjective refers both to masculine and feminine beings, it is put in the neuter plural, as wēsunuh þan garaíhta ba in and waírþja guþs, and they (Zacharias and Elizabeth) were both righteous before God.

§ 430. The strong and weak forms of adjectives are employed in much the same manner as in the other old Germanic languages; that is, adjectives used without the definite article follow the strong declension, and those with the definite article follow the weak declension, as was drus is mikils, great was the fall of it; ni mag bagms þiuþeigs akrana ubila gatáujan, a good tree cannot produce evil fruit; haírdeis sa gōda, the good shepherd; untē baúrgs ist þis mikilins þiudanis, for it is the city of the great king.

The pronominal form of the nom. acc. neut. of strong adjectives (§ 226) is never used predicatively.

All cardinal numerals, the ordinal numeral anþar, second, the possessive pronouns meins, my; þeins, thy; &c., the pronominal adjectives sums, some; alls, all; jáins, that; swaleiks, such; &c., as also the adjectives fulls, full; ganōhs, enough; halbs, half; midjis, middle; are always declined strong.

All ordinal numerals (except anþar), all adjectives in the comparative degree, all the old superlatives ending in -ma, as fruma, first; aftuma, last; the present participle 188(except in the nom. sing. masc., see § 239), and sama, same; silba, self; are always declined weak.

Pronouns.

§ 431. The nominative of the personal pronouns is generally omitted, except when the person is to be mentioned with special emphasis. When a pronoun stands for two substantives of different genders it is put in the neuter plural, as miþþanei þō wēsun jáinar, while they (Joseph and Mary) were there; is is sometimes used where we should expect sa, as iþ is dugann mērjan filu … swaswē is ni mahta in baúrg galeiþan, but he (the leper) began to publish it widely … so that he (Jesus) could not enter into the city; saei bigitiþ sáiwala seina, fraqisteiþ izái, jah saei fraqisteiþ sáiwalái seinái in meina, bigitiþ þō, he that findeth his life shall lose it, and he that loseth his life for my sake shall find it.

The reflexive pronoun always relates to the subject of its own sentence, as nih Saúlaúmōn in allamma wulþáu seinamma gawasida sik swē áins þizē, not even Solomon in all his glory was clothed like one of these; swa lagga ƕeila swē miþ sis haband brūþfad, ni magun fastan, as long as they [sunjus] have the bridegroom with them, they cannot fast; jah [Iēsus] gawaúrhta twalif du wisan miþ sis, and [Jesus] appointed twelve to be with him; jah suns ufkunnands Iēsus ahmin seinamma þatei swa þái mitōdēdun sis, qaþ du im, and immediately Jesus, perceiving in his spirit that they so reasoned within themselves, said to them.

The manner in which the possessive pronoun of the third person is expressed has already been stated in § 263, examples are:— qiþa izwis þatei haband mizdōn seina, I tell you that they have their reward; urrann sa saiands du saian fráiwa seinamma, the sower went forth to sow his seed; dáupidái wēsun allái … andháitandans 189frawaúrhtim seináim, they were all baptized … confessing their sins; þugkeiþ im áuk ei in filuwaúrdein seinái andháusjáindáu, for it seems to them that they will be heard for their much talking. On the other hand we have: aflētiþ mannam missadēdins izē, ye forgive men their sins; jah [qinō] baþ ina ei þō unhulþōn uswaúrpi us daúhtr izōs, and [the woman] begged that he would cast forth the devil out of her daughter; jah qimands Iēsus in garda Paítráus gasaƕ swaíhrōn is ligandein jah in heitōm jah attaítōk handáu izōs, and Jesus coming into the house of Peter, he saw his mother-in-law lying and in a fever and he touched her hand.

sama, same, as substantive and adjective, is used both with and without the article, as niu jah mōtarjōs þata samō táujand? do not even the publicans the same?; in þamma samin landa, in the same country; ei samō hugjáima jah samō fraþjáima, that we may think the same thing and mind the same thing; sijáina þō twa du leika samin, they two (man and wife) shall become the same flesh.

silba, self, is always either actually or virtually appositional, as silba atta, the father himself; ik silba, I myself; nasei þuk silban, save thyself; ik gabaírhtja imma mik silban, I will manifest myself to him; silba faúraqimiþ, he himself shall come before. The genitive of silba used with possessive pronouns agrees in number and gender with the noun, as þeina silbōns sáiwala þaírhgaggiþ haírus, a sword shall pierce thine own soul; waúrstw sein silbins kiusái ƕarjizuh, each man should test his own work.

The reciprocal pronoun is expressed by means of the personal pronouns and the adverb missō, reciprocally, or by using anþar twice, as ni þanamáis nu uns missō stōjáima, let us not therefore judge one another any more; jah qēþun du sis missō, and they said one to another; untē sijum anþar anþaris liþus, for we are members one of 190another; where liþus is in the singular agreeing with anþar.

The antecedent to a relative pronoun is sometimes omitted, the relative may then be either in the case required by the verb of its own clause or in that required by the verb of the principal clause, as ƕa wileiþ ei táujáu þammei (for þamma þanei) qiþiþ þiudan Iudaiē? what will ye that I do to him whom ye call king of the Jews?; wáit atta izwar þizei (for þata þizei) jus þaúrbuþ, your father knows of what ye have need. Instead of the conjunction þatei, that, properly the nom. acc. sing. neut. of saei, there occurs þammei or þizei when the verb of the principal sentence governs the dative or genitive, as iþ áins þizē, gáumjands þammei hráins warþ, but one of them, perceiving that he was cleansed; láisari, niu kara (ist) þuk þizei fraqistnam? master, carest thou not that we perish?

On the genitive governed by the interrogative and indefinite pronouns when used partitively, see § 427.

Verbs.

§ 432. Tenses. The future simple is generally expressed by the present, as gasaíƕiþ þana sunu mans, ye shall see the son of man; inuh þis bileiþái manna attin seinamma jah áiþein seinái, for this reason a man shall leave his father and his mother. The future is sometimes also expressed by the present tense forms of skulan, shall; haban, to have; duginnan, to begin; together with an infinitive, as saei skal stōjan qiwans jah dáuþans, who shall judge the quick and the dead; þarei ik im, þaruh sa andbahts meins wisan habáiþ, where I am, there shall also my servant be; gáunōn jah grētan duginniþ, ye shall mourn and weep.

The simple preterite is used in Gothic where we in Mod. 191English use either the preterite, perfect, or pluperfect, as jah stibna qam us himinam, and there came a voice from heaven; ni jus mik gawalidēduþ, ak ik gawalida izwis, ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen you; managans áuk gaháilida, for he had healed many. A present participle along with the preterite of wisan, to be, is sometimes used, as in Mod. English, to express a continuative past tense, as was Iōhannēs dáupjands, John was baptizing; wēsun sipōnjōs fastandans, the disciples were fasting.

§ 433. Voices. Special forms of the passive voice are extant in the present tense of the indicative and subjunctive only, as dáupjada, he is baptized; jah þu, barnilō, praúfētus háuhistins háitaza, and thou, child, shalt be called the prophet of the Highest; aflētanda þus frawaúrhteis þeinōs, thy sins are forgiven thee; ei andhuljáindáu us managáim haírtam mitōneis, that the thoughts of many hearts may be revealed. The other forms of the passive voice are expressed by the past participle and one of the auxiliary verbs wisan, to be; waírþan, to become; as gamēliþ ist, it is written; aþþan izwara jah tagla háubidis alla garaþana sind, but the very hairs of your head are all numbered; qam Iēsus jah dáupiþs was fram Iōhannē, Jesus came and was baptized by John; gaáiwiskōþs waírþa, I shall be ashamed; sabbatō in mans warþ gaskapans, the sabbath was made for man; gamarzidái waúrþun in þamma, they were offended at him.

§ 434. Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used very often in principal sentences to express a wish or command, as ni briggáis uns in fráistubnjái, lead us not into temptation; þaírhgaggáima ju und Bēþlahaím, jah saíƕáima waúrd þata waúrþanō, let us go now into Bethlehem, and see this thing (lit. word) which is come to pass; ak háitadáu Iōhannēs, but he shall be called John; wáinei þiudanōdēdeiþ, would that ye reigned as kings. It is also used in direct dubitative questions, as ƕa qiþáu? what shall I say?; ƕáiwa 192meináim waúrdam galáubjáiþ? how shall ye believe my words?; ƕas þanu sa sijái? who then can this be?

The most important cases in which the subjunctive is used in subordinate sentences are:—

(1) In indirect or reported commands or entreaties, as anabáuþ im ei mann ni qēþeina, he commanded them that they should not tell any man; wiljáu ei mis gibáis háubiþ Iōhannis, I will that thou give me the head of John.

(2) In reported speech when the principal sentence is negative or subjunctive or is a question implying uncertainty, as ni galáubidēdun þatei is blinds wēsi, they did not believe that he had been blind; jah jabái qēþjáu þatei ni kunnjáu ina, sijáu galeiks izwis liugnja, and if I were to say, I know him not, I shall be a liar like you; ƕa wileis ei táujá þus? what wilt thou that I do for thee?

(3) In indirect propositions governed by verbs of hoping, trusting, supposing, and the like, as wēnja ei kunneiþ, I hope that ye know; þáiei trauáidēdun sis ei wēseina garaíhtái, who trusted in themselves that they were righteous; jáinái hugidēdun þatei is bi slēp qēþi, they supposed that he was speaking about sleep.

(4) In statements reported at second hand, as weis háusidēdum ana witōda þatei Xristus sijái du áiwa, we have heard out of the law that Christ abideth for ever.

(5) In indirect questions, as frēhun ina skuld-u sijái mann qēn afsatjan, they asked him whether it was lawful for a man to put away his wife; ni wissa ƕa rōdidēdi, he knew not what he should say; ni haband ƕa matjáina, they have nothing to eat.

(6) In a relative clause attached to an imperative or a subjunctive clause, as atta, gif mis sei undrinnái mis dáil áigins, father, give me the portion of property which falleth to me; saei habái áusōna du háusjan, gaháusjái, he that hath ears to hear, let him hear. The verb in a relative clause is also in the subjunctive when the principal 193clause is interrogative or negative, as ƕas sa ist saei frawaúrhtins aflētái? who is this who forgiveth sins?; nih allis ist ƕa fulginis þatei ni gabaírhtjáidáu, for there is nothing hid, which shall not be manifested.

(7) In conditional clauses implying hypothesis or uncertainty, as jabái ƕas mis andbahtjái, mik láistjái, if any man serve me, let him follow me; nih qēmjáu jah rōdidēdjáu du im, frawaúrht ni habáidēdeina, if I had not come and spoken to them, they would not have had sin.

(8) Frequently in adverbial clauses which express a reason, as ni manna giutiþ wein juggata in balgins faírnjans, ibái áuftō distaírái wein þata niujō þans balgins, no man poureth new wine into old bottles, lest perchance the new wine burst the bottles.

(9) To express purpose, as attaúhun þata barn, ei tawidēdeina bi biūhtja witōdis, they brought the child that they might do according to the custom of the law; frawardjand andwaírþja seina, ei gasaíƕáindáu mannam fastandans, they disfigure their faces, that they may appear unto men to fast.

(10) The temporal conjunction faúrþizei is always followed by the subjunctive, as wáit atta izwar þizei jus þaúrbuþ, faúrþizei jus bidjáiþ ina, your father knoweth what ye need before ye ask him.

§ 435. Infinitive. The infinitive or a clause containing an infinitive is often used as the subject or object of a finite verb. (1) As subject:— ni gōþ ist niman hláif barnē jah waírpan hundam, it is not good to take the children’s bread and to cast it to dogs; warþ afsláuþnan allans, it came to pass that they were all amazed; warþ þaírhgaggan imma þaírh atisk, it came to pass that he went through the cornfields. (2) As object:— ōhtēdun fraíhnan ina, they feared to ask him; sōkidēdun attēkan imma, they sought to touch him; qiþand usstass ni wisan, they say that there is not any resurrection.

The infinitive with and without du is also used to express purpose, as qēmun saíƕan, they came to see; gagg þuk silban atáugjan gudjin, go, show thyself to the priest; sat du áihtrōn, he sat for the purpose of begging.

The passive infinitive is variously expressed. (1) Generally by waírþan and a past participle, as skal sunus mans uskusans waírþan, the son of man shall be rejected. (2) Not unfrequently by the active infinitive, as qēmun þan mōtarjōs dáupjan, then came the publicans to be baptized; qēmun háiljan sik saúhtē seináizō, they came to be healed of their infirmities. (3) Occasionally by mahts wisan, skuld wisan, along with an active infinitive, as maht wēsi frabugjan, it might have been sold (lit. it were possible to sell); ƕáiwa þu qiþis, þatei skulds ist usháuhjan sa sunus mans? how sayest thou, that the son of man must be lifted up?

§ 436. Participles. The past participle of intransitive verbs has an active meaning, as in garda qumans, being in the house; ƕa wēsi þata waúrþanō, what it was that had come to pass; and similarly with the pp. of diwan, to die; drigkan, to drink; fra-waírþan, to corrupt; ga-leikan, to take pleasure in; ga-qiman, to assemble; ga-rinnan, to run; us-gaggan, to go out.

The nom. of the pp. is rarely used absolutely, as in jah waúrþans dags gatils, and a fitting day being come. See note to Mark 6:21.

The dative of the participles is often used absolutely like the ablative in Latin, and the gen. in Greek, as jah usleiþandin Iēsua in skipa, gaqēmun sik manageins filu du imma, and Jesus having passed over in the ship, there came together to him a great multitude; dalaþ þan atgaggandin imma af faírgunja, láistidēdun afar imma iumjōns managōs, when he was come down from the mountain, great multitudes followed after him.