CHAPTER VIII

THE FIRST SOUND-SHIFTING, VERNER’S LAW, AND OTHER CONSONANT CHANGES WHICH TOOK PLACE IN THE PRIMITIVE GERMANIC LANGUAGE

§ 126. The first sound-shifting, popularly called Grimm’s Law, refers to the changes which the Indo-Germanic explosives underwent in the period of the Germanic primitive community, i. e. before the Germanic parent language became differentiated into the separate Germanic languages:— Gothic, O. Norse, O. English, O. Frisian, O. Saxon (= O. Low German), O. Low Franconian (O. Dutch), and O. High German.

The Indo-Germanic parent language had the following system of consonants:—

§ 127. In the following tables of the normal equivalents of the Indg. explosives in Latin, Greek, and the Germanic languages, Table I contains the Indg. tenues p, t, k, the mediae b, d, g and the pure velars q, g. Table II contains the Indg. mediae aspiratae and the velars q, g with labialization. The equivalents in the Germanic languages do not contain the changes caused by Verner’s Law, &c. The East Franconian dialect is taken as the normal for OHG.

The following points should be noticed:—

(1) The Indg. tenues p, t, k and the mediae b, d, g generally remained unchanged in Latin and Greek.

(2) The pure velars (q, ɡ) fell together with the palatals k, g in Latin and Greek. They became χ, k in prim. Germanic, and thus fell together with the χ, k from Indg. k, g.

(3) The pure velar ɡh fell together with the original palatal gh in Latin and Greek.

(4) The Indg. mediae aspiratae became in prehistoric Latin and Greek tenues aspiratae, and thus fell together with the original tenues aspiratae.

(5) The Indg. tenues aspiratae became voiceless spirants in prim. Germanic, and thus fell together with the voiceless spirants from the Indg. tenues. See § 130.

(6) In Latin Indg. q with labialization became qu, rarely c. ɡ with labialization became v (but gu after n, and g when the labialized element had been lost, as gravis = Gr. βαρύς, heavy).

Indg. ph, bh became f initially and b medially.

Indg. th, dh became f initially, b medially before and after r, before l and after u (w), in other cases d.

Indg. kh, gh became h initially before and medially between vowels; g before and after consonants, and f before u (w).

Indg. qh, ɡh with labialization became f initially, v medially except that after n they became gu.

(7) In Greek Indg. q, ɡ with labialization became π, β before non-palatal vowels (except u) and before consonants (except Indg. j); τ, δ before palatal vowels; and κ, γ before and after u.

Indg. ph, bh became φ; th, dh became θ; and kh, gh became χ.

Indg. qh, ɡh with labialization became φ before non-palatal vowels (except u) and before consonants (except Indg. j); θ before palatal vowels; and χ before and after u.

(8) When two consecutive syllables would begin with aspirates, the first was de-aspirated in prehistoric times in Sanskrit and Greek, as Skr. bándhanam, a binding, Goth. OE. bindan, OHG. bintan, to bind; Skr. bṓdhati, he learns, is awake, Gr. πεύθεται, he asks, inquires, Goth. anabiudan, OE. bēodan, to bid, OHG. biotan, to offer, root bheudh-; Gr. κανθύλη, a swelling, OE. gund, OHG. gunt, matter, pus; Gr. θρίξ, hair, gen. τριχός; ἔχω, I have, fut. ἕξω.

(9) In OHG. the prim. Germanic explosives p, t became the affricatae pf, tz (generally written zz, z), initially, as also medially after consonants, and when doubled. But prim. Germanic p, t, k became the double spirants ff, ȥȥ, hh (also written ch) medially between vowels and finally after vowels. The double spirants were simplified to f, ȥ, h when they became final or came to stand before other consonants, and also generally medially when preceded by a long vowel or diphthong.

§ 128. The Indg. tenues p, t, k, q, became in prim. Germanic the voiceless spirants f, þ, χ, χ(χw).

p > f. Lat. pēs, Gr. πούς, Goth. fōtus, OE. OS. fōt, OHG. fuoz, O.Icel. fōtr, foot; Lat. pecu, Goth. faíhu, OE. feoh, OS. fehu, OHG. fihu (fehu), O.Icel. fē, cattle; Lat. piscis, Goth. fisks, OS. OHG. fisk, OE. fisc, O.Icel. fiskr, fish; Lat. nepos, Goth. *nifa, OE. nefa, OHG. nefo, O.Icel. nefe, nephew; Lat. clepō, Gr. κλέπτω, I steal, Goth. hlifan, to steal.

t > þ. Lat. trēs, Gr. τρεῖς, Goth. *þreis, OE. þrī, OS. thria, O.Icel. þrīr, OHG. drī, three; Lat. tu, Gr. Dor. τύ, Goth. þu, OE. O.Icel. þū, OS. thū, OHG. dū, thou; Lat. vertō, I turn, Goth. waírþan, OE. weorðan, OS. werthan, O.Icel. verða, OHG. werdan, to become; Lat. frāter, Goth. brōþar, OE. brōðor, OS. brōthar, O.Icel. brōðir, OHG. bruoder, brother.

k > χ. Lat. canis, Gr. κύων, Goth. hunds, OE. OS. hund, O.Icel. hundr, OHG. hunt, hound, dog; Lat. cor (gen. cordis), Gr. καρδίᾱ, Goth. haírtō, OE. heorte, OS. herta, O.Icel. hjarta, OHG. herza, heart; Lat. decem, Gr. δέκα, Goth. taíhun, OS. tehan, OHG. zehan, ten; Lat. pecu, Goth. faíhu, cattle; Lat. dūcō, I lead, Goth. tiuhan, OS. tiohan, OHG. ziohan, to draw, lead.

q > χ (χw). Lat. capiō, I take, Goth. hafjan, OE. hebban, OS. hebbian, OHG. heffen, O.Icel. hefja, to raise; Lat. clepō, Gr. κλέπτω, I steal, Goth. hlifan, to steal; Lat. vincō, I conquer, Goth. weihan, OHG. wīhan, to fight; Lat. canō, I sing, Goth. hana, OE. hana, hona, O.Icel. hane, OS. OHG. hano, cock, lit. singer.

Lat. quis, Goth. ƕas, OE. hwā, OS. hwē, OHG. hwer (wer), who?; Lat. linquō (pf. līquī), Gr. λείπω (from *leiqō), I leave, Goth. leiƕan, OE. lēon (from *līhan), OHG. līhan, to lend.

§ 129. The Indg. mediae b, d, g, ɡ became the tenues p, t, k, k(kw).

b > p. O. Bulgarian slabŭ, slack, weak, Goth. slēpan, OE. slǣpan, OS. slāpan, OHG. slāfan, to sleep, originally to be slack; Lat. lūbricus for *slūbricus, slippery, Goth. sliupan, OE. slūpan, OHG. sliofan, to slip; Lithuanian dubùs, Goth. diups, OE. dēop, OS. diop, O.Icel. djūpr, OHG. tiof, deep; Lithuanian trobà, house, related to Goth. ϸaúrp, field, OE. ϸorp, OS. thorp, OHG. dorf, village. b was a rare sound in the parent language.

d > t. Lat. decem, Gr. δέκα, Goth. taíhun, O.Icel. tīo, OE. tīen, OS. tehan, OHG. zehan, ten; gen. Lat. pedis, Gr. ποδός, nom. Goth. fōtus, O.Icel. fōtr, OE. OS. fōt, OHG. fuoȥ, foot; Lat. dūcō, I lead, Goth. tiuhan, to draw, lead; Gr. καρδίᾱ, Lat. gen. cordis, Goth. haírtō, heart; Lat. vidēre, to see, Goth. OE. OS. witan, O.Icel. vita, 57OHG. wiȥȥan, to know; Lat. edere, Goth. itan, OE. OS. etan, O.Icel. eta, OHG. eȥȥan, to eat.

g > k. Lat. genu, Gr. γόνυ, Goth. kniu, OE. cnēo, OS. OHG. kneo, O.Icel. knē, knee; Lat. gustō, I taste, Gr. γεύω, I let taste, Goth. kiusan, OE. cēosan, OS. OHG. kiosan (keosan), O.Icel. kjōsa, to test, choose; Lat. ager, Gr. ἀγρός, Goth. akrs, OE. æcer, OS. akkar, OHG. ackar, field, land; Lat. egō, Gr. ἐγώ, Goth. OS. ik, OE. ic, O.Icel. ek, OHG. ih, I.

ɡ > k(kw). Lat. gelu, frost, Goth. kalds, OE. ceald, OS. kald, OHG. kalt, O.Icel. kaldr, cold; Lat. augēre, Goth. áukan, O.Icel. auka, OS. ōkian (wv.), OHG. ouhhōn (wv.), to add, increase, cp. also OE. part. adj. ēacen, great; Lat. jugum, Gr. ζυγόν, Goth. juk, OE. geoc, OHG. joh, yoke.

Gr. βίος from *ɡī̌wos, life, Lat. vīvos (*gwīwos), Goth. qius (gen. qiwis), OE. cwicu, OS. quik, OHG. quec, O.Icel. kvikr, quick, alive; Gr. βαίνω for *βανjω, older *βαμjω, I go, Lat. veniō for *gwemjō, I come, Indg. form *ɡmjṓ, Goth. qiman, OHG. queman, OE. OS. cuman, O.Icel. koma, to come; Skr. gurúṣ̌, Gr. βαρύς, from *ɡr-rus, Lat. gravis, Goth. kaúrus from prim. Germ. *k(w)uruz, heavy; Gr. ἔρεβος, Goth. riqis (stem riqiza-), prim. form *reɡos, darkness; Gr. Boeotian βανᾱ́, Goth. qinō, OE. cwene, OS. OHG. quena, woman, wife.

§ 130. The Indg. tenues aspiratae became voiceless spirants in prim. Germanic, and thus fell together with and underwent all further changes in common with the voiceless spirants which arose from the Indg. tenues (§ 128), the latter having also passed through the intermediate stage of tenues aspiratae before they became spirants. The tenues aspiratae were, however, of so rare occurrence in the prim. Indg. language that two or three examples must suffice for the purposes of this book; for further examples and details, the learner should consult Brugmann’s Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der 58indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. I:— Skr. root sphal-, run violently against, O.Icel. falla, OS. OHG. fallan, OE. feallan, to fall; Gr. ἀ-σκηθής, unhurt, Goth. skaϸjan, OE. sceϸϸan, OHG. skadōn, to injure; Gr. σχίζω, I split, Goth. skáidan, OE. scādan, OHG. sceidan, to divide, separate; φάλλη, O.Icel. hvalr, OE. hwæl, OHG. (h)wal, whale; Skr. kváthati, it boils, Goth. ƕaϸjan, to foam.

§ 131. The Indg. mediae aspiratae probably became first of all the voiced spirants ƀ, đ, ʒ, ʒ(w). For the further development of these sounds during the prim. Germanic period see §§ 132, 133.

§ 132. ƀ, đ initially, and ƀ, đ, ʒ medially after their corresponding nasals, became the voiced explosives b, d, g:—

b. Goth. baíran, OE. OS. OHG. beran, O.Icel. bera, to bear, Skr. bhárāmi, Gr. φέρω, Lat. ferō, I bear; Goth. beitan, O.Icel. bīta, OE. OS. bītan, OHG. bīȥȥan, to bite, Skr. bhḗdāmi, Lat. findō, I cleave; Goth. brōϸar, OE. brōðor, OS. brōthar, OHG. bruoder, O.Icel. brōðir, Skr. bhrā́tar-, Lat. frāter, brother, cp. also Gr. φρᾱ́τηρ, φρᾱ́τωρ.

Goth. *kambs, OE. camb, OHG. camb (chamb), O.Icel. kambr, comb, Skr. jámbhas, tooth, Gr. γόμφος, bolt, nail, prim. form *gombhos.

d. Goth. dags, OE. dæg, OS. dag, O.Icel. dagr, OHG. tag, day, Skr. ni-dāghás, older *ni-dhāghás, hot season, summer, Indg. form *dhoɡhos; Goth. ga-dēϸs (stem gadēdi-), OE. dǣd, OS. dād, O.Icel. dāð, OHG. tāt, deed, related to Gr. θή-σω, I shall place, Skr. dhā́ma, law, dwelling-place, rt. dhē-; Goth. daúhtar, OE. dohtor, OS. dohter, OHG. tohter, Gr. θυγάτηρ, daughter.

Goth. OE. OS. bindan, O.Icel. binda, OHG. bintan, to bind, Skr. bándhanam, a binding, cp. Gr. πενθερός, father-in-law, Lat. of-fendimentum, chin-cloth, rt. bhendh-.

g. Goth. aggwus, OE. enge, OS. OHG. engi, narrow, 59 cp. Lat. angō, Gr. ἄγχω, I press tight, rt. ańgh-; Goth. laggs, OE. lang, long, OS. OHG. lang, O.Icel. langr, Lat. longus, long.

§ 133. ƀ, đ, ʒ remained in other positions, and their further development belongs to the history of the separate Germanic languages. In Goth. ƀ, đ (written b, d) remained medially after vowels, but became explosives (b, d) after consonants. They became f, ϸ finally after vowels and before final -s. ʒ remained medially between vowels, and medially after vowels before voiced consonants, but became χ (written g) finally after vowels and before final -s. It became g initially, and also medially after voiced consonants. See §§ 166–9. In O.Icel. ƀ (written f) remained medially between and finally after voiced sounds, but became f before voiceless sounds. đ (written ð) generally remained medially and finally. ʒ remained medially after vowels and liquids, but became χ and then disappeared finally. It became g initially. đ became d in all the West Germanic languages and then d became t in OHG. In OE. ƀ (generally written f) remained between voiced sounds, but became voiceless f finally. ʒ remained in the oldest period of the language. In OS. ƀ (written ƀ, b) generally remained between voiced sounds. It became f medially before l and n, and before voiceless consonants, and also finally. ʒ (written g) remained initially and medially, but became χ finally, although it was generally written g. In OHG. ƀ, ʒ became b, g. Geminated ƀƀ, đđ, ʒʒ, of whatever origin, became bb, dd, gg in the prehistoric period of all the Germanic languages. Examples are:— Goth. *nibls, OS. neƀal, OHG. nebul, Lat. nebula, Gr. νεφέλη, mist, cloud, cp. Skr. nábhas, Gr. νέφος, cloud; Goth. liufs, O.Icel. ljūfr, OE. lēof, OS. liof, OHG. liob, dear, original form *leubhos, cp. Skr. lúbhyāmi, I feel a strong desire, Lat. lubet (libet), it pleases; OE. OS. ūder, OHG. ūter, Skr. ū́dhar, Gr. οὖθαρ, udder; Goth. ráuϸs, O.Icel. rauðr, OE. 60rēad, OS. rōd, OHG. rōt, prim. form *roudhos, cp. Skr. rudhirás, Gr. ἐ-ρυθρός, prim. form *rudhros, red; Goth. OE. guma, O.Icel. gume, OS. OHG. gumo, Lat. homō, prim. stem-form *ghomon-, -en-, man; OE. gōs, O.Icel. gās, OHG. gans, Gr. χήν, goose; OE. OS. OHG. wegan, Goth. ga-wigan, O.Icel. vega, to move, carry, Lat. vehō, prim. form *weghō, I carry; Goth. gasts, OE. giest, O.Icel. gestr, OS. OHG. gast, guest, Lat. hostis, stranger, enemy, prim. form *ghostis; Goth. steigan, O.Icel. stīga, OE. OS. OHG. stīgan, to ascend, Gr. στείχω, prim. form *steiɡhō, I go, cp. Lat. vestīgium, footstep.

§ 134. From the examples given in §§ 128–33, it will be seen that the Germanic sounds, which arose from the Indg. velars, appear partly with and partly without labialization. In the latter case they fell together with prim. Germ. χ, k, ʒ from Indg. k, g, gh, cp. e. g. Goth. hafjan (q), kalds (g), gasts (gh), beside Goth. hund (k), kniu (g), guma (gh). The conditions for this twofold development of the Indg. velars in the Germanic languages have not yet been definitely ascertained for all cases. It is, however, now pretty certain that the parent Indg. language contained two series of velars: (1) Pure velars which never had labialization. These velars fell together with the palatals in the Germanic, Greek, Latin, and Keltic languages, but were kept apart in the Aryan and Baltic-Slavonic languages. (2) Velars with labialization. These velars appear in the Germanic languages partly with and partly without labialization; in the latter case they also fell together with prim. Germ. χ, k, ʒ which arose from Indg. k, g, gh. The most commonly accepted theory is that the Indg. labialized velars q, g, gh regularly became χ, k, ʒ in prim. Germ. before Indg. ū̌, ō, o (= Germ. a § 39), and χw, kw, ʒw before Indg. ē̌, ī̌, ǝ, 61a, ā (= Germ. ō § 42); and that then the law became greatly obscured during the prim. Germ. period through form-transference and levelling out in various directions, as Goth. qam, OHG. quam, prim. form *ɡoma, I came, for Goth. OHG. *kam after the analogy of Goth. qima, OHG. quimu, original form *ɡemō, I come; Goth. ƕas, who? = Indg. *qos, for *has after the analogy of the gen. ƕis = Indg. *qeso, &c.

§ 135. Various theories have been propounded as to the chronological order in which the Indg. tenues, tenues aspiratae, mediae, and mediae aspiratae, were changed by the first sound-shifting in prim. Germanic. But not one of these theories is satisfactory. Only so much is certain that at the time when the Indg. mediae became tenues, the Indg. tenues must have been on the way to becoming voiceless spirants, otherwise the two sets of sounds would have fallen together.

Verner’s Law

§ 136. After the completion of the first sound-shifting, and while the principal accent was not yet confined to the 62 root-syllable, a uniform interchange took place between the voiceless and voiced spirants, which may be thus stated:—

The medial or final spirants f, ϸ, χ, χw, s regularly became ƀ, đ, ʒ, ʒw, z when the vowel next preceding them did not, according to the original Indg. system of accentuation, bear the principal accent of the word.

The ƀ, đ, ʒ, ʒw which thus arose from Indg. p, t, k, q underwent in the Germanic languages all further changes in common with the ƀ, đ, ʒ, ʒw from Indg. bh, dh, gh, ɡh.

Verner’s law manifests itself most clearly in the various forms of strong verbs, where the infinitive, present participle, present tense, and preterite (properly perfect) singular had the principal accent on the root-syllable, but the indic. pret. plural, the pret. subj. (properly optative), and past participle had the principal accent on the ending, as prim. Germ. *wérϸō > OE. weorϸe, I become = Skr. vártā-mi, I turn, pret. 3 sing. *wárϸi > OE. wearϸ, he became = Skr. va-várta, has turned, pret. 1 pl. *wurđumí > OE. *wurđum (wurdon is the 3 pers. pl. used for all persons) = Skr. va-vrtimá; past part. *wurđaná- > OE. worden = Skr. va-vrtāná-; OS. birid = Skr. bhárati, he bears, Goth. 2 sing. Indic. Pass. baíraza = Skr. bhárasē. Goth. baírand, OHG. berant = Skr. bháranti, they bear; present participle Goth. baírands, O.Icel. berandi, OE. berende, OS. berandi, OHG. beranti, Gr. gen. φέροντος. Or to take examples from noun-forms, &c., we have e. g. Skr. pitár-, Gr. πατέρ- = prim. Germanic *fađér-, Goth. fadar, OE. fæder, O.Icel. faðir, OS. fader, OHG. fater, father; Gr. πλωτός, floating, swimming, Goth. flōdus, OE. OS. flōd, O.Icel. flōð, OHG. fluot, flood, tide; Skr. çatám, Gr. ἑ-κατόν, Lat. centum = prim. Germanic *χunđóm, older *χumđóm, Goth. OE. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, hundred; Indg. *swékuros, Goth. swaíhra, OHG. swehur, father-in-law, beside Gr. ἑκυρᾱ́, OE. sweger, OHG. swigar, mother-in-law; Gr. δέκα, Goth. taíhun, OS. tehan, OHG. zehan, ten, beside Gr. δεκάς, 63 OE. OS. -tig, OHG. -zug, Goth. pl. tigjus, decade; Skr. saptá, Gr. ἑπτά, Goth. sibun, OE. seofon, OS. siƀun, OHG. sibun, seven; prim. Germ. *juŋʒás, Goth. jungs, OS. OHG. jung, young, beside Goth. jūhiza from *juŋχizō, younger (§§ 62, 142); Gr. νυός from *σνυσός, OE. snoru, OHG. snura, daughter-in-law; OHG. haso beside OE. hara, hare; Goth. áusō beside OE. ēare, ear.

The combinations sp, st, sk, ss, ft, fs, hs, and ht were not subject to this law.

§ 137. From what has been said above it follows that the interchanging pairs of consonants due to Verner’s law were in prim. Germanic: f—ƀ, ϸ—đ, s—z, χ—ʒ, χw—ʒw.

In Gothic the regular interchange between the voiceless and voiced spirants in the forms of strong verbs was, with two or three exceptions, given up by levelling out in favour of the voiceless spirants. In this respect the West-Germanic languages show an older stage than Gothic.

f—ƀ. Goth. ϸarf, I need, pl. ϸaúrbum; OHG. heffen, to raise, huobun, gihaban, but Goth. hafjan, hōfum, hafans.

ϸ—đ. Goth. fraϸjan, to understand, frōdei (d = đ), understanding; OE. weorϸan, to become, wurdon, worden, but Goth. waírϸan, waúrϸum, waúrϸans; OE. snīϸan, to cut, snidon, sniden, but Goth. sneiϸan, sniϸum, sniϸans.

s—z. Prim. Germ. *kéusō, I test, pret. 1 pl. *kuzumí, pp. *kuzaná-; OE. cēosan, to choose, curon, coren, but Goth. kiusan, kusum, kusans.

The West-Germanic languages and Old Norse regularly developed this z to r. Cp. also Goth. áusō, ear, beside OE. ēare, OS. OHG. ōra, O.Icel. eyra.

χ—ʒ. Goth. áih, I have, pl. áigum (g = ʒ); Goth. fahēþs, 64 gladness, faginōn, to be glad; hūhrus (§§ 62, 142), hunger, huggrjan, to hunger; filhan, to hide, fulgins (adj.), hidden; jūhiza (§§ 62, 142), younger, juggs, young; OE. tēon (from *tēohan), to draw, tugon, togen, but Goth. tiuhan, taúhum, taúhans; OE. slēan (from *sleahan), to smite, slōgon, slægen, but Goth. slahan, slōhum, slahans.

χw—ʒw. Prim. Germ. séχwan-, to see, pret. 1 pl. *sǣʒwumí, pp. *seʒwaná-, cp. OE. sēon from *seo(hw)an, sǣgon, sewen, but Goth. saíƕan, sēƕum, saíƕans.

ʒw became ʒ before u, in other cases it became w, as Goth. magus, boy, beside mawi from *ma(ʒ)wī́, girl; Goth. siuns, OE. sēon(sīon), OS. siun, from *se(ʒ)wnís, a seeing, face; Goth. snáiws, OE. snāw (with -w from the oblique cases) from *snai(ʒ)waz, prim. form *snoiɡhós.

Other Consonant Changes

§ 138. Most of the sound changes comprised under this paragraph might have been disposed of in the paragraphs treating of the shifting of the Indg. mediae and mediae aspiratae, but to prevent any possible misunderstanding or confusion, it was thought advisable to reserve them for a special paragraph.

The Indg. mediae and mediae aspiratae became tenues before a suffixal t or s already in the pre-Germanic period; thus:—

Examples are Lat. nūptum, nūpsī, beside nūbere, to marry; Skr. loc. pl. patsú, beside loc. sing. padí, on foot; Lat. rēxī, rectum, beside regere, to rule; Lat. vēxī, vectum, beside vehere, to carry, rt. wegh-; Lat. lectus, Gr. λέχος, bed, couch, Goth. ligan, to lie down; Skr. yuktá-, Gr. ζευκτός, Lat. jūnctus, yoked, rt. jeuɡ-; &c.

Then pt, kt, qt; ps, ks, qs were shifted to ft, χt; fs, χs at the same time as the original Indg. tenues became voiceless spirants (§ 128). And tt, ts became ss through the intermediate stages of ϸt, ϸs respectively. ss then became simplified to s after long syllables and before r, and then between the s and r there was developed a t.

This explains the frequent interchange between p, ƀ(b), and f; between k, ʒ(g), and h (i. e. χ); and between t, ϸ, đ(d), and ss, s in forms which are etymologically related.

p, ƀ(b)—f. Goth. skapjan, OE. scieppan, OHG. skephen, to create, beside Goth. ga-skafts, creation, OE. ge-sceaft, OHG. gi-scaft, creature; Goth. giban, OHG. geban, to give, beside Goth. fra-gifts, a giving, OE. OHG. gift, gift; OHG. weban, to weave, beside English weft.

k, ʒ(g)—h. Goth. waúrkjan, OE. wyrcan, OHG. wurken, to work, beside pret. and pp. Goth. waúrhta, waúrhts, OE. worhte, worht, OHG. worhta, gi-worht; Goth. ϸugkjan, OE. ϸync(e)an, OHG. dunken, to seem, 66 appear, beside pret. and pp. Goth. þūhta, *þūhts, OE. þūhte, þūht, OHG. dūhta, gi-dūht; 1 pers. pl. Goth. magum, OE. magon, OHG. magun (mugun), we may, can, beside pret. sing. Goth. mahta, OE. meahte, OHG. mahta, pp. Goth. mahts, cp. also Goth. mahts, OE. meaht, OHG. maht, might, power; Goth. bugjan, OE. bycg(e)an, to buy, beside pret. and pp. Goth. baúhta, baúhts, OE. bohte, boht; Goth. briggan, OE. OHG. bringan, to bring, beside pret. and pp. Goth. brāhta, *brāhts, OE. brōhte, brōht, OHG. brāhta, brāht.

t, þ, đ(d)—ss, s. Goth. witan, OE. witan, to know, beside pret. Goth. wissa, OE. wisse, OHG. wissa (wessa), part. adj. Goth. *ga-wiss, OE. ge-wis(s), OHG. gi-wis(s), sure, certain; Goth. ga-ƕatjan, OE. hwettan, to sharpen, beside Goth. ƕassei, sharpness, ƕassaba, sharply; Goth. qiþan, to say, beside ga-qiss, consent; Goth. ana-biudan, to command, beside ana-busns (ana-būsns?), commandment, from pre-Germ. *bhū̌tsni-, rt. bheudh-; Goth. us-standan, to rise again, beside us-stass, resurrection.

ss > s after long syllables and before r: Goth. háitan, to command, call, OE. hātan, to call, beside OE. hǣs, from *haissi-, command; Goth. OE. witan, to know, beside Goth. un-weis, unknowing, OE. OHG. wīs, wise, cp. Lat. vīsus; Goth. itan, OE. etan, to eat, beside OE. ǣs, OHG. ās, carrion, cp. Lat. ēsum. Goth. guþ-blōstreis, worshipper of God, OHG. bluoster, sacrifice, cp. Goth. blōtan, to worship; OE. fōstor, O.Icel. fōstr, sustenance, cp. Goth. fōdjan, to feed.

Instead of ss (s) we often meet with st. In such cases the st is due to the analogy of forms where t was quite regular, e. g. regular forms were Goth. last, thou didst gather, inf. lisan; slōht, thou didst strike, inf. slahan; OE. meaht, OHG. maht, thou canst, inf. OHG. magan; then after the analogy of such forms were made 2 pers. 67 sing. Goth. wáist for *wáis, OE. wāst for *wās, OHG. weist for *weis; Goth. qast for *qass, inf. qiþan, to say; Goth. báust for *báus, inf. biudan, to bid; regular forms were pret. sing. Goth. waúrhta, OE. worhte, OHG. worhta, Goth. inf. waúrkjan, to work; then after the analogy of such forms were made OE. wiste, beside wisse, OHG. westa, beside wissa (wessa), I knew, inf. OE. witan; Goth. pret. sing. káupasta for *káupassa, inf. káupatjan, to strike with the palm of the hand, buffet.

For purely practical purposes the above laws may be thus formulated:— every labial + t appears as ft, every guttural + t as ht, every dental + t as ss, s (st).

§ 139. Assimilation:— -nw- > -nn-, as Goth. OE. OHG. rinnan from *rinwan, to run; Goth. kinnus, OE. cinn, OHG. kinni, from *genw-, Gr. γένυ-ς, chin, cheek; Goth. minniza, OS. minnira, OHG. minniro, from *minwizō, less, cp. Lat. minuō, Gr. μινύθω, I lessen; OE. þynne, O.Icel. þunnr, OHG. dunni, thin, cp. Skr. fem. tanvī́, thin.

-md- > -nd-, as Goth. OE. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, prim. form *kmtóm, hundred; Goth. skaman, OE. scamian, OHG. scamēn, to be ashamed, beside Goth. skanda, OE. scand, OHG. scanta, shame, disgrace.

-ln- > -ll-, as Goth. fulls, OE. full, Lithuanian pìlnas, prim. form *plnós, full; Goth. wulla, OE. wulle, OHG. wolla, Lithuanian wìlna, wool.

§ 140. Prim. Germanic Ҍn, đn, ʒn = Indg. pn-́ , tn-́ , kn-́ , qn-́ (by Verner’s law), and bhn-́, *dhn-́, ghn-́, ghn-́, became ҌҌ, đđ, ʒʒ before the principal accent, then later bb, dd, gg; and in like manner Indg. bn-́, dn-́, gn-́, gn-́ became bb, dd, gg. And these mediae were shifted to pp, tt, kk at the same time as the original Indg. mediae became tenues (§ 129). These geminated consonants were simplified to p, t, k after long syllables. Examples are: OE. hnæpp, OHG. napf, from *χnaҌn-́ or *χnabn-́, basin, bowl; OE. hoppian, O.Icel. hoppa, MHG. hopfen, from *χoҌn-́, to 68hop; OE. OS. topp, O.Icel. toppr, from *toҌn-́ or *tobn-́, top, summit; OE. hēap, OS. hōp, OHG. houf, from *χauҌn-́; OE. cnotta, from *knođn-́, beside OHG. chnodo, chnoto, knot; Goth. ƕeits, OE. OS. hwīt, from *χwīđn-́, white; OE. bucc, O.Icel. bokkr, OHG. boc (gen. bockes), prim. form *bhugnós, buck; OE. liccian, OS. leccōn, OHG. lecchōn, from *leʒn-́, to lick; OE. locc, O.Icel. lokkr, prim. form *lugnós, lock; OE. smocc, O.Icel. smokkr, from *smoʒn-́, smock; OE. lōcian, OS. lōkōn, from *lōgn-́ or *lōʒn-́, to look.

§ 141. Indg. z + media became s + tenuis, as Goth. asts, OHG. ast = Gr. ὄζος, from *ozdos, branch, twig; OE. OHG. nest, Lat. nīdus, from *ni-zdos, nest, related to root sed-, sit; OE. masc. OHG. masca, mesh, net, cp. Lithuanian mezgù, I tie in knots.

Indg. z + media aspirata became z + voiced spirant, as Goth. mizdō, OE. meord, pay, reward, cp. O. Bulgarian mῐzda, Gr. μισθός, pay; OE. mearg, OHG. marg, O. Bulgarian mozgŭ, marrow, root mezgh-; Goth. huzd, OE. hord, OHG. hort, hoard, treasure, root kuzdh-.

§ 142. Guttural n (ŋ) disappeared before χ, as Goth. OS. OHG. fāhan, OE. fōn, from *faŋχanan, to seize; Goth. OS. OHG. hāhan, OE. hōn, from *χaŋχanan, to hang; Goth. þeihan, OS. thīhan, OHG. dīhan, OE. þīon, þēon, from *þiŋχanan, to thrive; pret. Goth. þāhta, OE. þōhte, OS. thāhta, OHG. dāhta, from *þaŋχtō-, I thought, beside inf. Goth. þagkjan, OS. thenkian, OHG. denken, OE. þencan.

§ 143. χ became an aspirate (written h) initially before vowels, as Goth. OE. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, from *χunđan, prim. form *kmtóm, hundred; Goth. hunds, O.Icel. hundr, OE. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, from *xunđaz, dog, hound. Some scholars assume that it also became an aspirate medially between vowels. Upon this assumption it would be difficult to account for the breaking in OE., as 69 OE. slēan, from *sleahan, older *slaχan-, Goth. slahan, to strike, slay; OE. swēor, from *sweohur, older *sweχur, OHG. swehur, father-in-law.

Medial and final χw became χ in O.Icel. and the West Germanic languages, as OS. OHG. sehan, OE. sēon, O.Icel. sjā, from *seχ(w)an-, beside Goth. saíƕan, to see; OS. OHG. līhan, OE. līon, lēon, O.Icel. ljā, from *līχ(w)an-, beside Goth. leiƕan, to lend; OS. OHG. aha, OE. ēa from *eahu, beside Goth. aƕa, water, river; OE. seah, OS. OHG. sah, beside Goth. saƕ, he saw; OE. nēah, OS. OHG. nāh, beside Goth. nēƕ, near.

§ 144. The consonants, which arose from the Indg. final explosives (t, d), were dropped in prim. Germanic, except after a short accented vowel, as OE. OHG. bere, Goth. baírái, from an original form *bheroĩt, he may bear. See § 87, (2).

§ 145. Original final -m became -n, and then it, as also Indg. final -n, disappeared after short vowels in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words during the prim. Germanic period. For examples, see § 87, (1).

§ 146. w disappeared before u, as Goth. kaúrus, from *k(w)uruz = Gr. βαρύς, heavy, prim. form *ɡr-rús; OE. nacod, older *nakud, OHG. nackut, from *nak(w)uđ-, beside Goth. naqaþs, naked; OE. O.Icel. sund, a swimming, from *swumda-, cp. OE. swimman, O.Icel. svimma, to swim; pp. OE. cumen, OHG. koman (beside quoman, a new formation), O.Icel. komenn, OHG. inf. queman, to come; OE. swingan, to swing, beside pp. s(w)ungen; O.Icel. svimma, to swim, beside pp. summenn. In verbal forms the w was mostly re-introduced in the pret. pl. and pp. after the analogy of forms which regularly had w, e. g. Goth. swultum, swultans, for *sultum, *sultans, through the influence of forms like inf. swiltan, to die, pret. sing. swalt; similarly qumum, qumans, for *kumum, *kumans, inf. qiman, to come. For levelling out in the opposite 70direction, cp. Goth. siggwan (regular form), beside OE. OS. OHG. singan, to sing; Goth. sigqan, beside OE. sincan, OHG. sinkan, to sink.

§ 147. Initial and medial sr became str, as OE. strēam, O.Icel. straumr, OS. OHG. strōm, stream, cp. Skr. srávati, it flows; pl. OE. ēastron, OHG. ōstarūn, Easter, cp. Skr. usrā́, dawn; Goth. swistar, OE. sweostor, OHG. swester, sister, with t from the weak stem-form, as in the locative singular Goth. swistr = prim. Germanic *swesri = Skr. dat. svásrē.

§ 148. The remaining Indg. consonants suffered no further material changes which need be mentioned here. Summing up the results of §§ 128–47, we arrive at the following system of consonants for the close of the prim. Germanic period:—

To these must be added the aspirate h.