CHAPTER XV

WORD-FORMATION

§ 352. By far the greater part of the word-forming elements, used in the parent language, were no longer felt as such in Gothic. In this chapter we shall chiefly confine ourselves to those word-forming elements which remained productive, such as prefixes and suffixes.

Nouns.

§ 353. Nouns may be divided into simple, derivative and compound. Examples of simple nouns are: aba, father; ahs, ear of grain; áiþs, oath; baúrgs, city; dags, day; fōtus, foot; fisks, fish; gulþ, gold; haúrn, horn; ƕeila, time; juk, yoke; nahts, night; stáins, stone; waúrd, word; wulfs, wolf.

§ 354. Derivative nouns are formed in a great variety of ways:—

1. From adjectives, as bráidei, breadth; drugkanei, drunkenness; laggei, length; managei, multitude; siukei, sickness (§ 212); mildiþa, mildness; niujiþa, newness (§ 191); managdūþs, abundance (§ 199); manniskōdus, humanity; barniski, childhood.

2. By means of various suffixes most of which were no longer felt as such in Gothic, as fugls, fowl, bird; stikls, cup; tagl, hair; bagms, tree; máiþms, treasure; akrs, field; tagr, tear; brōþar, brother; daúhtar, daughter; figgrs, finger; baúrgja, citizen; gudja, priest; fiskja, fisher; bōkareis, scribe; mōtareis, toll-taker; lēkinassus, healing. Diminutives, as barnilō, little child; magula, little boy; mawilō, little girl.

3. From strong verbs with and without a prefix, as 171 láiba, remnant; ur-rists, resurrection; un-witi, ignorance; drus, fall; ga-kusts, test; nuta, fisher; saúhts, sickness; bandi, band; bandja, prisoner; dragk, drink; ga-filh, burial; ga-munds, remembrance; fulhsni, secret; sagqs, sinking; saggws, song; ur-runs, running out; þarba, pauper; barn, child; baúr, son; bērusjōs, parents; ga-taúra, rent; ga-qumþs, assembly; qums, advent; skula, debtor; bida, prayer; gabei, riches; giba, gift; ga-nists, salvation; ga-qiss, consent; hliftus, thief; mahts, might; wists, substance; wraks, persecutor; fraþi, understanding; ga-skafts, creation; slaúhts, slaughter; staþs, place; us-wahsts, growth; áihts, property; ga-háit, promise.

4. By means of various prefixes. Some of the forms given as prefixes below are in reality independent words forming the first element of compounds. They have been included among the real prefixes for purely practical purposes. It should be noted that the examples given below include both nouns and adjectives:—

Prefixes.

§ 355. af- from *ab- (O.Icel. OS. af-, OE. æf- (unaccented form of-), OHG. ab, Indg. *apó beside *ápo, Gr. ἀπό ἄπο, off, from, away from), as af-drugkja, drunkard; af-ētja, glutton; af-gudei, ungodliness; af-guþs, godless; af-lageins, remission; af-lēts, forgiveness; af-stass, a falling away.

§ 356. afar- (O.Icel. afar-, OHG. avar-, a deriv. of Indg. *ápo + the comparative suffix -er-os, after, cp. Skr. áparas, the latter; adv. aparám, later), as afar-dags, the next day; afar-sabbatus, the first day after the Sabbath.

§ 357. ana- (OS. an-, OHG. ana-, OE. an-, accented form of on-, Gr. ἀνά, ἄνα, on, upon), as ana-bū̌sns, command; ana-filh, tradition; ana-lageins, a laying on; ana-minds, supposition; ana-qiss, blasphemy; ana-siuns, visible; ana-stōdeins, beginning; ana-waírþs, future.

§ 358. and-, mostly in verbs, anda-, only with nouns and adjectives (O.Icel. and-, OE. and-, ond-, OS. and-, ant-, OHG. ant-, ent-, int-, cp. Skr. ánti, Gr. ἀντί, opposite, against, Lat. ante, before), as and-áugi, face; and-bahts, servant; and-huleins, revelation; and-waírþi, presence.— anda-baúhts, ransom; anda-hafts, answer; anda-nēms, pleasant; anda-nahti, evening; anda-staþjis, adversary; anda-þāhts, circumspect; anda-wáurdi, answer.

§ 359. at- (O.Icel. OS. at-, OE. æt-, OHG. aȥ-, at, to, Lat. ad, to), only in at-aþni, year; at-witáins, observation.

§ 360. bi- (OE. OS. be-, OHG. bi-, the unaccented form of OE. OS. OHG. bī, by), as bi-faíhō, covetousness; bi-háit, strife; bi-máit, circumcision; bi-sitands, neighbour.

§ 361. dis- (probably borrowed from Lat. dis-, apart, asunder), only in dis-taheins, dispersion; dis-wiss, dissolution.

§ 362. faír- (OHG. fir-, far-, NHG. Ver-, Skr. pári, Gr. πέρι, περί, around, Lat. per, through), only in faír-weitl, spectacle.

§ 363. faúr- (OE. OS. for, OHG. furi, for, before), as faúr-baúhts, redemption; faúr-hāh, curtain; faúr-lageins, a laying before; faúr-stasseis, chief ruler;

§ 364. faúra- (OE. fore, OS. OHG. fora, before, for), as faúra-daúri, street; faúra-gagga, steward; faúra-hāh, curtain; faúra-maþleis, ruler; faúra-tani, sign, wonder.

§ 365. fra- (OHG. fra-, Lat. pro-, Gr. πρό, before), as fra-gifts, gift, promise; fra-qisteins, waste; fra-lusts, loss; fra-waúrhts, sin; fra-weit, revenge.

§ 366. fram- (O.Icel. OE. OS. OHG. fram-, from), as fram-aldrs, very old; fram-gāhts, progress.

§ 367. ga- (OE. ge-, OS. gi-, OHG. ga-, gi-), originally a preposition meaning together, which already in prim. Germanic was no longer used as an independent word. It was especially used in forming collective nouns, but at a later period it often had only an intensive meaning or 173 no special meaning at all, as ga-baúrþs, birth; ga-bruka, fragment; ga-dōfs, becoming, fit; ga-filh, burial; ga-guþs, pious; ga-hugds, thought; ga-juk, a pair; ga-kusts, proof; ga-man, fellow-man; ga-munds, remembrance; ga-qumþs, assembly; ga-skafts, creation; ga-waúrstwa, fellow-worker.

§ 368. hindar- (OE. hinder, OHG. hintar, behind), only in hinder-weis, deceitful; hindar-weisei, deceitfulness.

§ 369. id- (OE. ed-, OHG. ita-, it-, back, again, re-), only in idweit (OE. edwīt, OHG. ita-wīȥ, it-wīȥ), reproach.

§ 370. in- (OE. OS. OHG. in, O.Lat. en, later in, Gr. ἐνί, ἐν, in), as in-ahei, soberness; in-ahs, sober; in-gardja, one of the same household; in-ilō, excuse; in-kunja, country-man; in-máideins, exchange; in-winds, turned aside.

§ 371. inna- (O.Icel. OE. inne, OHG. inna, within), only in inna-kunds, of the same household.

§ 372. missa- (OE. mis-, OHG. missa-, missi-, Indg. *mitto-, originally a participial adjective meaning lost), as missa-dēþs, misdeed; missa-leiks, various; missa-qiss, discord.

§ 373. miþ- (OE. OS. mid, OHG. mit, with, Gr. μετά, with, under, between), as miþ-gardi-waddjus, partition wall; miþ-ga-sinþa, travelling companion; miþ-wissei, conscience.

§ 374. uf- from *uƀ- (Skr. úpa, Gr. ὕπο, up, under), as uf-áiþeis, under an oath; uf-blōteins, entreaty; uf-háuseins, obedience; uf-kunþi, knowledge.

§ 375. ufar- (OE. ofer, OS. oƀar, OHG. ubar, Gr. ὑπέρ, Skr. upári, over, above), as ufar-fullei, overfullness; ufar-fulls, overfull; ufar-gudja, chief priest; ufar-mēli, superscription.

§ 376. un- (OE. OS. OHG. un-, Lat. en-, Gr. ἀ-, a negative particle, un-, sometimes used intensitively with the meaning bad, evil, &c.), as un-agei, fearlessness; unbaírands, barren; un-fagrs, unfit; un-frōdei, without understanding; un-háili, disease; un-hulþa, evil spirit; un-mahts, infirmity; un-wāhs, blameless.

§ 377. us- from *uz- (OE. or-, OS. OHG. ur-, out), as us-filh, burial; us-fōdeins, food; us-fulleins, fullness; us-kunþs, well-known; us-qiss, accusation; us-stass, resurrection; ur-rists, resurrection, see § 175 note 3.

§ 378. wiþra- (OE. wiþer, OHG. widar, against), only in wiþra-waírþs, opposite.

Suffixes.

§ 379. -and- (OE. -end, -nd, OS. -and, -nd; OHG. -ant, -nt), originally the ending of the present participle (§ 217), used in forming nomina agentis, as bisitands, neighbour; frijōnds, friend; fijands, enemy; nasjands, saviour. See § 218.

§ 380. -arja- (OE. -ere, OHG. -ā̌ri, Lat. -ārius), originally used to form nomina agentis from other nouns, and then later from verbs also, as bōkareis, scribe; láisareis, teacher; liuþareis, singer; mōtareis, toll-taker; sōkareis, disputer. See § 185.

§ 381. -assu- from *-attu-, Indg. -ad-tu- (cp. § 138), the first element of which is the same as the -at- in Goth. -atjan, OE. -ettan, OHG. -azzen, Gr. -άζειν, in verbs like Goth. laúhatjan, OHG. lohazzen, to lighten. Mostly extended to -inassu- with -in- from verbs like fráujinōn, to rule over; gudjinōn, to be a priest (§ 415); as ibnassus, evenness; ufarassus, overflow; blōtinassus, service, worship; draúhtinassus, warfare; gudjinassus (formed from stem gudjin-, nom. gudja, priest), office of a priest; hōrinassus, adultery; lēkinassus, healing; skalkinassus, service; þiudinassus, service; waninassus, want.

§ 382. -dūþi-, forming fem. abstract nouns, cp. Lat. juventus, youth, gen. juventūtis, Indg. -tūti-, as ajukdūþs, eternity; managdūþs, abundance; mikildūþs, greatness; gamáindūþs, communion. See § 199.

§ 383. -īn-, embracing fem. abstract nouns formed from adjectives, as áudagei, blessedness; báitrei, bitterness; 175 bleiþei, mercy; bráidei, breadth; diupei, depth; gōdei, goodness; handugei, wisdom; laggei, length; liutei, deceit; mikilei, greatness; siukei, sickness; swinþei, strength. See § 212.

§ 384. -iþa (OE. -þo, -þ, OHG. -ida, prim. Germanic -iþō with -i- from ja- and i-stems, Indg. -tā), used in forming fem. abstract nouns from adjectives, as aggwiþa, anguish; agliþa, tribulation; dáubiþa, deafness; diupiþa, depth; dwaliþa, foolishness; gáuriþa, sorrow; kaúriþa, weight; manwiþa, preparation; mēriþa, fame; mildiþa, mildness; niujiþa, newness; swēriþa, honour; swikniþa, purity; weihiþa, holiness. See § 191. -iþa generally became -ida by dissimilation when the preceding syllable began with a voiceless consonant, as áuþida, desert; waírþida, worthiness.

§ 385. -ōpu- (OE. -aþ, -oþ, OHG. -ōd, Lat. -ātu-, Gr. Doric -ᾱτύ-), used in forming masc. abstract nouns from the second class of weak verbs, as gáunōþus, mourning; gabaúrjōþus, pleasure. -ōþu- became -ōdu- by dissimilation when the preceding syllable began with a voiceless consonant, as aúhjōdus, tumult; manniskōdus, humanity; wratōdus, journey.

§ 386. -ubni, -ufni (see § 158 note), prim. Germanic -uƀnja-, Indg. -mnjo- with vocalic m, as fastubni, observance; fráistubni, temptation; witubni, knowledge; waldufni, power; wundufni, wound.

§ 387. -þwa (prim. Germanic -þwō, Indg. -twā), as fijaþwa, fiaþwa, hatred; frijaþwa, love; saliþwōs, pl., dwelling, mansion.

§ 388. -eini-, prim. Germanic -i(j)ini-, Indg. -ejeni-; -ōni-, Indg. -āni-; -áini-, prim. Germanic -æ(j)ini-, Indg. -ējeni-; used in forming verbal abstract nouns from the first three classes of weak verbs, as láiseins, doctrine; lapōns, invitation; libáins, life. See § 200.

Compound Nouns.

§ 389. In compound nouns formed by composition the second element is always a noun, but the first element may be a noun, adjective, or a particle. The declension and gender of compound nouns are determined by the final element.

The final vowel of the first element generally remained in the pure a-stems, but there are many exceptions which it is difficult to account for. Examples are: áiƕa-tundi, thornbush; áina-baúr, first-born; áiza-smiþa, coppersmith; arma-haírtei, mercy; daúra-wards, door-keeper; dwala-waúrdei, foolish talk; figgra-gulþ, finger-ring; garda-waldands (but see § 197), master of the house; hunda-faþs, centurion; hunsla-staþs, altar; lagga-mōdei, long-suffering; láuna-wargs, unthankful person; láusa-waúrdi, empty talk; lukarna-staþa, candlestick; waíla-dēþs, benefit; waúrda-jiuka, a strife about words; weina-gards, vineyard; weina-triu, vine. But on the other hand: áin-falþei, simplicity; all-waldands, the Almighty; gud-hūs, temple; guþ-blōstreis, worshipper of God; hals-agga, neck; láus-handus (adj.), empty-handed; manag-falþs (adj.), manifold; sigisláun, prize; wein-drugkja, wine-bibber.

The -a remained in the short ja-stems, but disappeared in the long, as midja-sweipáins, the flood; niuja-satiþs, novice; wilja-halþei, respect of persons; but frei-hals, freedom. arbi-numja, heir; agláiti-waúrdei, indecent language.

The final vowel of the first element regularly remained in the ō-, jō-, i, and u-stems, as mōta-staþs, toll-place. þūsundi-faþs, leader of a thousand men. gabaúrþi-waúrda, genealogy; mari-sáiws, sea; mati-balgs, wallet; náudi-bandi, fetter; but brūþ-faþs, bridegroom. asilu-qaírnus, mill-stone; faíhu-gaírnei, covetousness; filu-waúdrdei, much talking; fōtu-baúrd, footboard; grundu-waddjus, foundation; hardu-haírtei, hard-heartedness.

þiuþi-qiss instead of *þiuþa-qiss, blessing.

The n-stems have a, as áuga-daúrō, window; mana-sēþs, mankind; but man-leika, image; staua-stōls, judgment seat.

Examples of consonant stems are: baúrgs-waddjus, town-wall; brōþru-lubō, brotherly love, beside the new formation brōþra-lubō; nahta-mats, supper, formed on analogy with the a-stems.

Adjectives.

§ 390. Adjectives, like nouns, may be conveniently divided into three classes: simple, derivative, and compound. Examples of simple adjectives are: áins, one; alls, all; baírhts, bright; blinds, blind; dáuþs, dead; diups, deep; fagrs, fair; fulls, full; háils, whole; hardus, hard; ibns, even; juggs, young; kalds, cold; mikils, great; raíhts, right; siuks, sick; ubils, evil.

§ 391. Derivative adjectives often have the same prefixes as nouns (§§ 355–78), as af-guþs, godless; ana-siuns, visible; anda-nēms, pleasant; fram-aldrs, very old; gaguþs, pious; missa-leiks, various; un-fagrs, unfit; us-kunþs, well known.

Suffixes.

§ 392. -aga- (OE. -ig, OHG. -ag, prim. Germanic -aʒá-, Indg. -oqó-, cp. Skr. -aká-, as áudags, blessed; grēdags, greedy; mōdags, angry; un-hunslags, without offering; wulþags, glorious.

§ 393. -aha- (prim. Germanic -áxa-, Indg. -óqo-, cp. Skr. -áka-, the same suffix as the above with difference of accent), as áinaha (weak decl), only; niu-klahs, under age; stáinahs, stony; un-barnahs, childless; waúrdahs, verbal; and similarly baírgahei, hill country, from *baírgahs; brōþrahans, brethren, from *brōþrahs.

§ 394. -eiga- (OE. -ig, OHG. -ī̌g, prim. Germanic -īʒá-, Indg. *-īqó-, cp. Skr. -īká-), as anda-nēmeigs, holding fast; 178 ansteigs, gracious; hrōþeigs, victorious; láiseigs, apt to teach; listeigs, cunning; mahteigs, mighty; sineigs, old; þiuþeigs, good; us-beisneigs, long-suffering; waúrst-weigs, effective.

§ 395. -eina- (OE. -en, OHG. -īn, prim. Germanic -īna-, = Lat. -īnu-s), used in forming adjectives denoting the material of which a thing is made, as aírþeins, earthen; áiweins, eternal; barizeins, of barley; filleins, leathern; gulþeins, golden; gumeins, male, qineins, female; stáineins, of stone; þaúrneins, thorny; triweins, wooden.

§ 396. -iska- (OE. -isc, OHG. -isc, -isk, Lat. -iscu-s, Gk. -ισκο-ς), generally connoting the quality of the object denoted by the simplex, as barnisks, childish; funisks, fiery; gudisks, godly; mannisks, human; *þiudisks, whence þiudiskō, after the manner of Gentiles; iudaíwisks, Jewish, formed from Iudaíus, Jew; háiþiwisks, wild, with w from iudaíwisks.

Compound Adjectives.

§ 397. In compound adjectives formed by composition the second element is always an adjective or used as an adjective, but the first element may be a noun, adjective, verb, or particle. The final vowel in the first element of the compound follows the same rule as in nouns (§ 389), as akrana-láus, fruitless; gōda-kunds, of good origin; guda-láus, godless; himina-kunds, heavenly; witōda-láus, lawless; áin-falþs, simple; mikil-þūhts, high-minded. andi-láus beside anda-láus, endless, with a from the pure a-stems. aírþa-kunds, born of the earth; ƕreila-waírbs, transitory. náudi-þaúrfts, needy. faíhu-gaírns, covetous; handu-waúrhts, made by hands. guma-kunds, male; qina-kunds, female; silba-wiljis, willing of oneself.

§ 398. In addition to the class of compound adjectives given above, the parent language had a class, the second element of which was originally a noun. Such compounds 179 are generally called bahuvrīhi or possessive compounds, as Lat. longipēs, having a long foot, long-footed; Gr. δυσμενής, having an evil mind, hostile; Gothic alja-kuns, belonging to another race, foreign; arma-haírts, merciful; háuh-haírts, proud, haughty; ibna-leiks, equal; láus-handus, empty-handed; láusa-waúrds, talking vainly; ubil-waúrds, evil-speaking.

Verbs.

§ 399. From a morphological point of view, all verbs may be divided into two great classes: simple and compound. Simple verbs are sub-divided into primary and denominative verbs. To the former sub-division belong the strong verbs and a certain number of weak verbs, and to the latter the denominative verbs. The simple primary verbs are here left out of further consideration, as their formation belongs to the wider field of comparative grammar. Compound verbs are of various kinds: (1) those formed from simple verbs by means of separable or inseparable particles, (2) those formed from nouns and adjectives with verbal prefixes or suffixes.

§ 400. Simple verbs are formed direct from nouns and adjectives or from the corresponding strong verbs, as dáiljan, to deal out; fōdjan, to feed; namnjan, to name; wēnjan, to hope; fiskōn, to fish; karōn, to care for. háiljan, to heal; hráinjan, to make clean; mikiljan, to magnify; weihnan, to become holy. lagjan, to lay; nasjan, to save; ráisjan, to raise; satjan, to set; wandjan, to turn.

§ 401. Compound verbs are formed from simple verbs, nouns, and adjectives, by means of various prefixes. See below. On the accentuation of the prefixes in verbs see §§ 33–4.

Prefixes.

§ 402. af- (§ 355), as af-áikan, to deny; af-dáuþjan, to kill; af-gaggan, to go away; af-lētan, to dismiss; af-máitan, to cut off; af-slahan, to kill; af-tiuhan, to draw away.

§ 403. afar- (§ 356), as afar-gaggan, to follow; afar-láistjan, to follow after.

§ 404. ana- (§ 357), as ana-áukan, to add to; ana-biud-an, to command; ana-háitan, to call on; ana-hneiwan, to stop down; ana-lagjan, to lay on; ana-stōdjan, to begin.

§ 405. and- (§ 358), as and-bindan, to unbind; and-hafjan, to answer; and-huljan, to uncover; and-niman, to receive; and-sakan, to dispute; and-standan, to withstand.

§ 406. at- (§ 359), as at-áugjan, to show; at-giban, to give up; at-hafjan, to take down; at-lagjan, to lay on; at-saíƕan, to take heed; at-tēkan, to touch; at-waírpan, to cast down; at-wōpjan, to call.

§ 407. bi- (§ 360), as bi-áukan, to add to; bi-gitan, to find; bi-leiban, to remain; bi-rinnan, to run about; bi-sitan, to sit about; bi-swaran, to adjure.

§ 408. dis- (§ 361), as dis-dáiljan, to share; dis-sitan, to settle upon; dis-tahan, to waste; dis-taíran, to tear asunder; dis-wilwan, to plunder.

§ 409. -du- (of unknown origin), as du-at-gaggan, to go to; du-ginnan, to begin; du-rinnan, to run to; du-stōdjan, to begin.

§ 410. faúr- (§ 363), as faúr-biudan, to forbid; faúr-gaggan, to pass by; faúr-qiþan, to excuse; faúr-sniwan, to hasten before.

§ 411. faúra- (§ 364), as faúra-gaggan, to go before; faúra-gateihan, to inform beforehand; faúra-standan, to govern.

§ 412. fra- (§ 365), as fra-giban, to give; fra-itan, to devour; fra-lētan, to liberate; fra-liusan, to lose; fra-niman, to receive; fra-qistjan, to destroy; fra-wardjan, to destroy.

§ 413. ga- (originally added to verbs to impart to them a perfective meaning, see § 367), as ga-baíran, to bring 181forth; ga-bindan, to bind; ga-dáiljan, to divide; ga-fāhan, to seize; ga-fulljan, to fill; ga-háitan, to call together; ga-kiusan, to approve; ga-láubjan, to believe; ga-lisan, to gather together; ga-nasjan, to save; ga-rinnan, to hasten together; ga-taíran, to destroy; ga-wandjan, to turn round.

§ 414. hinder- (§ 368), only in hindar-leiþan, to go behind.

§ 415. in- (§ 370), as in-brannjan, to put in the fire; in-saian, to sow in; in-saíƕan, to look at; in-sandjan, to send forth; in-widan, to reject.

§ 416. twis- (OE. twi-, OHG. zwi-, Lat. bi-, Gr. δι- from *δϝι-, two), denoting separation, only in twis-standan, to depart from one.

§ 417. uf- (§ 374), as uf-blēsan, to blow up; uf-brikan, to reject; uf-dáupjan, to baptize; uf-háusjan, to submit; uf-kunnan, to recognize; uf-ligan, to lie under.

§ 418. tuz- (OE. tor-, Gr. δυς-), only in tuz-wērjan, to doubt.

§ 419. þaírh- (OE. þurh, OHG. durh, through), as þaírh-baíran, to carry through; paírh-gaggan, to go through; þaírh-saíƕan, to see through; þaírh-wisan, to remain.

§ 420. ufar- (§ 375), as ufar-gaggan, to transgress; ufar-mēljan, to write over; ufar-munnōn, to forget; ufar-skadwjan, to overshadow; ufar-steigan, to mount up.

§ 421. und- (OE. oþ-, OHG. unt-, up to), as und-greipan, to seize; und-rēdan, to grant; und-rinnan, to run to one.

unþa- (OE. ūþ-, OHG. int-, from, away), only in unþa-þliuhan = OHG. int-fliohan, to escape.

§ 422. us- (§ 377), as us-anan, to expire; us-beidan, to await; us-dreiban, to drive out; us-giban, to give out; us-kiusan, to choose out; us-láubjan, to permit; us-qiþan, to proclaim; us-tiuhan, to lead out. ur-ráisjan, to rouse up; ur-reisan, to arise; ur-rinnan, to proceed. See § 175 note 3.

§ 423. wiþra- (§ 378), only in wiþra-gaggan, wiþra-ga-mōtjan, to go to meet.

Suffixes.

§ 424. -atjan (OE. -ettan, OHG. -azzen, cp. § 381), used in forming intensitive verbs, as laúhatjan, to lighten; káupatjan, to buffet; swōgatjan, to sigh, groan.

§ 425. -inōn (with -in- from verbs like gudjinōn, to be a priest, formed from the stem gudjin-, nom. gudja, priest; ga-áiginōn, to take possession of, from áigin, property), and similarly fráujinōn, to rule over; raginōn, to be governor. The -in- then came to be extended to verbs like skalkinōn, to serve, from skalks, servant; and similarly draúhtinōn, to wage war; faginōn, to rejoice; hōrinōn, to commit adultery; lēkinōn, to heal; reikinōn, to govern.